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THE LIBRARY

OF
THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES

GIFT

RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS
IN EDUCATION

EDITED BY ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
LELANU STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY

DIVISION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

UNDER THE EDITORIAL DIRECTION

OF ALEXANDER INGLIS

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
HARVARD UNIVERSITY

"'"Illl"'
Mil'.

PRINCIPLES OF
SECONDARY EDUCATION

ALEXANDER INGLIS

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
HARVARD UNIVERSITY

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO

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CAMliRIDGB . MASSACHUSETTS
O . S . A

Education
Library

PREFACE

IN this book the author has attempted to make a sys-
tematic analysis of the factors and principles involved in a
constructive theory of secondary education. The theory
herein developed is the outgrowth of the writer's experience
in secondary-school teaching and administration, together
with his experience as a college instructor in the theory and
practice of secondary education. The present volume pre-
sents the content and method employed in a course of the
Principles of Secondary Education at Harvard University.
After use in manuscript form for several years, the book is
now published in the hope that it may prove of some value
to teachers, administrators, and other students of education.

Three factors must always determine the form which
secondary education should assume: (a) the nature of the
pupils to be educated; (6) the character of the social or-
ganization and of social ideals; (c) the means and materials
available for educational purposes. Accordingly this volume
is divided into three parts. Part I is devoted to a consider-
ation of the raw material with which secondary education
deals, i.e., boys and girls approximately twelve to eighteen
years of age. Part II is devoted to a consideration of the
secondary school as a social institution — its character,
place, and function. Part III is devoted to a consideration
of the means and materials wherewith the aims of secondary
education can be achieved. Throughout it has been the
endeavor of the author to coordinate and correlate the
various portions of the book in such a way as to develop
a theory of secondary education in which the several ele-
ments are organically related and mutually consistent. For

1C86432

vi PREFACE

that reason each succeeding chapter or topic must be con-
sidered in its relation to the principles formulated or the
factors treated in preceding sections. The complex inter-
relations of secondary education preclude the adequate con-
sideration of any single phase in isolation.

In the construction of a book on the principles of second-
ary education one of two methods may be employed. A
number of specialists may collaborate in the production
of a book which consists of several more or less isolated
treatises on various separate phases of secondary education.
Such a method has many merits, but precludes the develop-
ment of a consistently constructive theory. On the other
hand, when a single individual attempts to write a book
covering a field as broad as that of secondary education,
there are always two possible dangers : either the limitations
of the individual may lead to superficial treatment and error,
or unsupported personal opinion and bias may dominate.
The first of these dangers is minimized when the writer
refrains from attempting to deal with the details of teach-
ing appropriate to the various studies of the secondary-
school program and confines this attention to more funda-
mental principles. In this book the author deals with special
studies only in connection with the broader matters of aims
and values, together with the larger elements of method
necessarily involved. A later volume in this series will deal
with the principles of teaching in the secondary school and
several volumes will deal with methods of teaching special
subjects or groups of subjects.

Bias and personal opinion the author has attempted to
minimize in three ways: first, by supporting important
statements on disputed points by reference to the opinions
of specialists and to the results of impersonal investigation ;
secondly, by presenting directly the findings or theories of
specialists and limiting his personal judgment to their

PREFACE vii

evaluation in synthesis; thirdly, by securing the direct criti-
cism of specialists and utilizing their judgments in the prep-
aration of the book. Practically every chapter of the book
has been examined and criticized by two or more specialists
in the field treated in that chapter. In this way the author
has hoped to safeguard himself and his readers from the
errors of purely personal opinion and bias.

The mere listing of the names of those men and women
who have assisted in the preparation of this volume would
take more space than is here available. The author takes
this opportunity to express to those persons collectively his
deep appreciation of their assistance. Here also he wishes to
acknowledge the courtesy of publishers and authors who
have permitted the use of quotations for the clearer pres-
entation of typical opinions on important points.

ALEXANDER INGLIS.

CONTENTS

PART I. THE PUPILS

CHAPTER I. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL: PHYSICAL

TRAITS 3

1. Physical traits as basic data. 2. The chronological ages
of pupils. 3. The growth of children in height and weight.
4. The growth of organs and parts of the body. 5. Physical de-
velopment in relation to health. 6. The physiological phenom-
ena of adolescence. 7. Some implications for secondary edu-
cation. 8. The distribution of pupils according to puberty.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CHAPTER II. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL: MENTAL

TRAITS 34

9. Secondary education and the development of mental traits.'
10. The development of mental traits with age. 11. Theories of
the development of mental traits. 12. The theory of serial de-
velopment. 13. The theory of concomitant development. 14. An
evaluation of the theories of development. 15. Implications for
secondary education. 16. Theories of the influence of adoles-
cence. 17. The theory of saltatory development. 18. The theory
of gradual development. 19. Evaluation of the two theories.
20. Implications for secondary education.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CHAPTER III. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL: INDIVID-
UAL DIFFERENCES 74

21. Importance of recognizing individual differences. 22. The
distribution of individual differences. 23. The interpretation of
measures. 24. The causes of individual differences. 25. Com-
mon errors in interpreting differences. 26. Individual differences
due to biological heredity. 27. Individual differences due to so-
cial heredity. 28. Individual differences due to environment.
29. Individual differences in interests, etc. 30. Individual differ-
ences due to sex.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

x CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV. THE SECONDABY-SCHOOL POPULATION: ITS

CHARACTER AND CLASSIFICATION . .118

31. Some illustrative figures. 32. The distribution of pupils by
schools. 33. The distribution of pupils by grades. 34. Retarda-
tion and acceleration. 35. The elimination of pupils by grades.
36. The elimination of pupils by age. 37. Elimination and home
conditions. 38. Elimination, early intention, and early promise.
39. The lure of the out-of-school world. 40. Expectancy of stay
in the secondary school. 41.- The classification of secondary-
school pupils. 42. Pupils completing the course. 43. The dis-
tribution of secondary-school graduates. 44. Pupils destined not
to complete the course.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

PART II. THE INSTITUTION AND ITS PURPOSE

CHAPTER V. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDU-
CATION IN AMERICA 161

45. Three principal periods of development. 46. The Latin
grammar school of England. 47. The beginning of secondary
education in America. 48. The Public Latin School of Boston.
49. The Massachusetts Bay Colony law of 1647. 50. Further
legal provision in Massachusetts. 51. Legal provision in other
colonies. 52. The Latin school in New England and elsewhere.
63. The origin of the academy in America. 54. The Franklin
Academy in Philadelphia. 55. The academy in Massachusetts.
56. The academy movement in other states. 57. The control and
support of the academy. 58. The curriculum of the academy.
59. Secondary education for girls in the academy. 60. Effect of
the academy movement. 61. Secondary education in the early
nineteenth century. 62. The English Classical (High) School
of Boston. 63. The Girls' High School of Boston. 64. The Massa-
chusetts law of 1827. 65. The public high school in Massachusetts.
66. The high-school movement in the United States. 67. The
public high school and the academy. 68. State systems of sec-
ondary education.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CHAPTER VI. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES 203

69. The comparative study of secondary education. 70. Pur-
view of secondary education in other countries. 71. The organi-
zation of school systems in Prussia. 72. The place of "higher
schools" in Prussian education. 73. Higher schools for boys in

CONTENTS xi

Prussia. 74. "Reform schools" in Germany. 75. Higher schools
for girls in Prussia. 76. Statistics of higher schools in Germany.
77. "Intermediate schools," etc., in Germany. 78. Teachers in
Prussian higher schools forboys. 79. Higher schools and the social
organization. 80. Secondary education in Germany and America.
81. The system of education in France. 82. Types of "second-
ary schools " for boys in France. 83. Other forms of secondary
education in France. 84. "Secondary" education of girls in
France. 85. Statistics of "secondary" schools in France. 86. The
"secondary school " teacher in France. 87. Secondary education
and the social organization in France. 88. Secondary education
in France and America. 89. Organization of secondary education
in England. 90. The "Great Public Schools" of England.
91. Other endowed and private secondary schools. 92. The old
municipal "board" secondary schools. 93. "Grant-list" and
"efficient" secondary schools. 94. The curricula of English sec-
ondary schools. 95. The secondary education of girls in Eng-
land. 96. Secondary schools and other departments of education.
97. Secondary schools and the social organization in England.
Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CHAPTER VII. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN RELATION TO

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION . . . .261

98. Factors involved in making distinctions. 99. Distinctions
based on chronological age. 100. Distinctions based on develop-
ment. 101. Distinctions based on social factors. 102. Distinc-
tions based on studies. 103. The fallacy of sharp distinctions.
104. Historical development. 105. The development of articu-
lation in America. 106. Practice in foreign countries. 107. The
eight-four system. 108. The age of pupils transferred. 109. The
pedagogical age of pupils transferred. 110. Evidences of defects
in articulation. 111. Retardation and elimination as evidence.
112. Instruction in later elementary-school grades. 113. Further
objections to present conditions. 114. Psychological considera-
tions. 115. Social and economic principles involved. 116. Ad-
ministrative factors involved. 117. The six-grade course of second-
ary education. 118. The junior high-school movement. 119. The
purposes of the junior high-school. 120. Difficulties to be met.

Problems for further consideration — • Selected references.

CHAPTER VIII. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN RELATION TO

HIGHER EDUCATION 303

121. Early relations. 122. The Latin grammar school and the
college. 123. The early academy and the college. 124. The public

xii CONTENTS

high school and the college. 125. The rise of public state univer-
sities. 126. The secondary school and the normal school. 127.
The overlapping of secondary school and college. 128. High-school
pupils entering higher institutions. 129? Early requirements and
changes. 130. The amount of preparation required. 131. "Pre-
scribed," "accepted," and "elective" subjects. 132. The dis-
tribution of prescribed units. 133. Recommendations of the
Committee on Articulation. 134. Examination and certificating
systems. 135. Examination methods in practice. 136. Advan-
tages and disadvantages of examinations. 137. The certificating
or accrediting system. 138. The advantages and disadvantages
of the accrediting system. 139. Methods of administering the
accrediting system. '

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CHAPTER IX. SOCIAL PRINCIPLES DETERMINING SECOND-
ARY EDUCATION 340

140. Some underlying assumptions. 141. Secondary educa-
tion as a social institution. 142. Social ideals and social organi-
zation. 143. Social evolution and educational adjustment.
144. Social integration and differentiation. 145. Changes in other
social institutions. 146. Changes in the home and family life.
147. Changes in community life. 148. Changes in the Church
and religion. 149. Changes in the vocation.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CHAPTER X. THE AIMS AND FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY

EDUCATION 367

150. The aims of secondary education: their basis. 151. Three
fundamental aims of secondary education. 152. The social-
civic aim. 153. The economic-vocational aim. 154. The individ-
ualistic-avocational aim. 155. The interrelation of the three
aims. 156. Aims based on traits involved. 157. The functions of
secondary education. 158. The adjustive or adaptive function.
159. The integrating function. 160. The differentiating func-
tion. 161. The propaedeutic function. 162. The selective func-
tion. 163. The diagnostic and directive function.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CONTENTS xiii

PART III. THE MEANS AND MATERIALS OF
SECONDARY EDUCATION

CHAPTER XI. THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES — CRITERIA
OF SUBJECT VALUES: ANALYSIS OF THE
PROGRAM . 387

164. Subject values determined by aims and functions.
165. Direct values. 166. The transfer of improved efficiency.
167. Is transfer or spread a reality? 168. What is the mode of
transfer or spread? 169. Transfer or spread dependent on dis-
sociation. 170. Factors which foster and facilitate dissociation.
171. The above principles illustrated. 172. An answer to
problem 2. 173. Problem 3: What is the extent of transfer?
174. The results of experimental investigations. 175. Impli-
cations of psychological theory. 176. Problem 4: The trans-
fer values of studies. 177. The evolution of the program in
America. 178. The relative prominence of various subjects.
179. The necessity of selection.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CHAPTER XII. THE PLACE OF ENGLISH IN THE PROGRAM

OF STUDIES 420

180. The historic dominance of linguistic and literary studies.
181. The present status of English in the program. 182. English
and the aims of secondary education. 183. The aims of language
and of literature distinguished. 184. The relation of language to
thought. 185. The aims and values of the study of language.
186. Language as an intellectual instrument. 187. The dominant
purposes of language studies. 188. Limitations of the study of
the mother tongue. 189. Literature and the social- civic aim of
education. 190. Literature and the economic- vocational aim.
191. Literature and the individualistic-avocational aim. 192. Cri-
ticism of English study as now organized.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

\s
CHAPTER XIII. THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

IN THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES . . 447

193. Historical development in America. 194. Present status.
195. Preliminary analysis of aims and values. 196. Values for
social intercourse. 197. Values for commercial purposes. 198.
Values for instrumental purposes. 199. Values for social-cultural
purposes. 200. Summary and correlation of direct values.
201. Foreign-language study and "general discipline." 202. Val-
ues for language-thought relations. 203. The mother tongue and

xiv CONTENTS

foreign, languages. 204. The relative values of foreign languages.
205. The place of foreign languages.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CHAPTER XIV. THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE

PROGRAM OF STUDIES .... 481

206. Historical development of the study of mathematics.
207. Present status of mathematics instruction. 208. Preliminary
analysis of aims and values. 209. Mathematics in the affairs of
everyday life. 210. Mathematics in various vocations. 211. The
propaedeutic values of mathematics. 212. Direct values limited
and contingent. 213. Indirect values claimed: number and space
concepts. 214. Mathematics and the transfer of improved effi-
ciency. 215. Characteristics claimed to favor transfer values.
216. Rugg's experiment. 217. Criticism of mathematics as now
organized. 218. The order and position of mathematical studies.

Problems for further consideration — • Selected references.

CHAPTER XV. THF PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES . . 506

219. Historical development. 220. Present status. 221. Values
claimed for the natural sciences. 222. Spencer's fallacies perpetu-
ated. 223. Preliminary analysis of the values claimed. 224. Natu-
ral science in the affairs of everyday life. 225. Direct values for
vocations. 226. Propaedeutic values. 227. Conceptual values
claimed. 228. Transfer values claimed. 229. The values and aims
of "general science." 230. The aims and values of natural science
instruction.

Problems for further consideration — • Selected references.

CHAPTER XVI. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES IN THE

PROGRAM OF STUDIES .... 534

231. Historical position in the program. 232. Present status.
233. Character and ultimate aims. 234. Values of the study of
history. 235. Direct social-civic values. 236. Direct vocational
values. 237. Direct avocational values. 238. Direct propaedeutic
values. 239. Conceptual values claimed. 240. Transfer values
claimed. 241. Factors conditioning the values of history. 242.
Meaning and scope of civics. 243. The aims and values of civics.
244. The scope and function of "community civics." 245. Eco-
nomics as a study in the program. 246. The study of " Problems
of American Democracy." 247. Criticism of social studies as now
organized.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CONTENTS xv

CHAPTER XVII. THE PLACE OF PRACTICAL AND VOCA-
TIONAL ARTS IN THE PROGRAM . . 572

248. Historical position of the practical arts. 249. Present
status in the program. 250. Values of the practical and vocational
arts. 251. Conditions emphasizing practical and vocational arts.
252. The field of vocational education. 253. Relative importance
of various occupations. 254. Principles governing selection.
255. The scope of clerical and commercial education. 256. Aims
of clerical and commercial subjects. 257. The place of clerical
arts in the program. 258. Analysis of clerical occupations.
259. Non-clerical commercial subjects. 260. "General subjects"
modified. 261. Criticism of present commercial education.
262. Meaning and scope of industrial education. 263. Conditions
emphasizing industrial education. 264. Values and aims of in-
dustrial subjects. 265. Analysis of industrial occupations.
266. Variation in industrial conditions. 267. The selection of in-
dustrial subjects. 268. "General subjects" modified. 269. The
scope of agricultural education. 270. Factors emphasizing agri-
cultural education. 271. Aims and values of agricultural educa-
tion. 272. Analysis of agricultural occupations. 273. Variation
in agricultural activities. 274. The adaptation of "general"
subjects. 275. Scope and field of domestic education. 276. Fac-
tors emphasizing domestic education. 277. Females in various
occupations. 278. Values of domestic education for girls.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CHAPTER XVIII. THE PLACE OF ESTHETIC ARTS m

THE PROGRAM 621

279. Historical position in the program. 280. Present status.
281. Fundamental principles involved. 282. Values of the aes-
thetic arts. 283. ^Esthetic art and literature. 284. Present status
of the study of music. 285. The social-civic values of music.
286. Economic-vocational values of music. 287. Individualistic-
avocational values of music. 288. Three groups of pupils to be
considered. 289. Courses emphasizing musical accomplishment.
290. Courses emphasizing musical appreciation. 291. Courses for
other pupils. 292. The field of design and related arts. 293. Two
broad divisions of art instruction. 294. Design and related arts as
related to industrial arts. 295. Design and related arts as related
to commercial arts. 296. Design and related arts as related to
domestic arts.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

xvi CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIX. PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE SECOND-
ARY SCHOOL 640

297. Historical development. 298. Present status. 299. The
values of physical education. 300. Factors emphasizing physical
education. 301. Three general divisions of physical education.
302. Physiology and hygiene: past and present status. 303. Place
of physiology and hygiene in the program. 304. Direct import-
ance of physiology and hygiene. 305. Sex hygiene and sex
pedagogy. 306. Past and present status of physical training.
307. Values and aims of physical training. 308. Gymnastics in
the program. 309. Athletics, dancing, and games. 310. Some
dangers in such organization. 311. Military training and phys-
ical training.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CHAPTER XX. THE ORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDU-
CATION: CURRICULUMS 662

312. Historical development of curriculums. 313. Curriculums
recommended by the Committee of Ten. 314. Criticism of the
committee's recommendations. 315. Suggestions from foreign
practice. 316. The aims and functions of secondary education.
317. Principles arising from pupils' development. 318. Principles
arising from individual differences. 319. The distribution and
classification of pupils. 320. Constant and variable elements.
321. The determination of constants. 322. The determination
of variables. 323. Rigid versus flexible curriculums. 324. Con-
tinuity and concentration. 325. Required, preferential, and elec-
tive subjects. 326. Immediate and deferred values. 327. Prelim-
inary explanation of curriculums. 328. Curriculum organization
for the junior high school. 329. Curriculum organization of the
senior high school.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

CHAPTER XXI. THE ORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY

EDUCATION (continued) .... 693

330. The place of the secondary school. 331. Comprehensive
versus special-type secondary schools. 332. Organization of vo-
cational secondary education. 333. The organization of instruc-
tion. 334. The organization of extra- curriculum education.
335. Educational diagnosis and guidance. 336. The social or-
ganization of the school.

Problems for further consideration — Selected references.

INDEX . 723

PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

PART I
THE PUPILS

PRINCIPLES OF
SECONDARY EDUCATION

CHAPTER I

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL: PHYSICAL TRAITS

i. Physical traits as basic data. All educational theory
and practice must be determined primarily by the nature of
the individuals to be educated. Reduced to its lowest terms
education is the process of producing, directing, and prevent-
ing changes in human beings. For the intelligent production,
direction, and prevention of such changes a knowledge of
the raw material with which education deals is a funda-
mental necessity, and hence the first problem of educational
theory and practice in any department is concerned with
the nature of those to be educated. It is, perhaps, a plati-
tude to say that the physical and physiological traits of the
individual primarily condition his total nature. As is the
case with many general truths, the readiness with which one
accepts such a statement sometimes tends to interfere with
a full appreciation of its significance and to leave one con-
tent with the acceptance of the generalization. The result-
ing tendency to minimize the importance of a knowledge
of the physical and physiological traits of the educand is
furthered by recognition of the fact that such traits are
amenable to control through education to a limited degree
only and that the demands of modern life emphasize atten-
tion to the phenomena of mental traits.

Secondary education, as any other department of educa-
tion, demands for initial consideration the physical and

4 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

physiological traits of boys and girls, special interest center-
ing on those traits and their development in boys and girls
of ages approximately twelve to eighteen. Out of the char-
acter of those traits and their development arise numerous
important problems for secondary education, some of gen-
eral and indirect importance, others of very specific and
direct bearing. The present chapter, therefore, is concerned
with the nature of physical or physiological traits in boys
and girls, their development, and their bearing on the the-
ory and practice of secondary education.

Before approaching the material presented in this chapter
the reader should be warned that much remains to be accom-
plished in the measurement of physical and physiological
traits and that even the best material available is open to
severe criticism. In particular one must be careful not to
infer too much from averages which can hold true for large
groups only and cannot be applied safely to individuals or
small groups because of the great variability found. Like-
wise one should be on guard against unqualified acceptance
of the results of one or a few limited investigations. Finally,
one must be aware of the danger of inferring the nature of
development "in general," or the nature of the development
of all organs and parts of the body, from the nature of the
development of one or more specific parts or organs.

Two errors have been so common in the measurement of
physical and physiological traits that they merit special
mention. One of those errors is the practice of attempting
to determine norms of development by measuring different
groups of children at various ages, instead of measuring the
growth of the same children. The second error is that of
failing to recognize properly the importance of variability
and of overemphasizing the importance of averages in the
measurement of any given trait. Recent investigations have
tended to avoid these errors.

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL

2. The chronological ages of pupils. Data concerning
physical traits and their development are best understood
when referred to terms of maturity or "age." Ordinarily
maturity or age is expressed in chronological terms — years,
months, and days — and "norms" for physical and mental
traits are commonly expressed by the layman and educator
in such terms. However, chronological age is a very unsatis-
factory measure of maturity and is likely to be misleading.

The organization of the American school system at present
postulates that the age and grade distribution of pupils will
conform roughly to the following standard:

TABLE I

Elementary School

Grade: ...1234 5 6 7 8

Age: 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14

Secondary School

I II III IV

14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18

That the actual situation is far from this age-grade distri-
bution may be seen from the following typical example:

TABLE II. AGE-GRADE DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN THE
PATERSON (N.J.) SCHOOLS, 1912

Age

Grades

///

Total

712

723

1239

367

1622

628

965

364

1973

154

584

943

270

1972

219

644

680

280

1895

102

294

602

617

254

1897

11
12
13
14
15
16

9
5

37
22
13
3

137
61
36
8

364
210
93

26
2

502
356
193
60
8
3

518
660
323
124
19
5

172
489
523
234
74
8

28
152
400
366
182
29

2
25
151

'i9

<T59>

' i

17
$

'16

1773
1884
1757
1214
691
364

17
18

10
3

38
10

!'j>
44

233
83

Over 20

Total

2879

2323

2503

2263

2040

1821

1506

1158

681

411

338

232

18155

<5 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

From such a table as this a number of important facts
regarding the chronological age of secondary -school pupils
are evident. It is probable that in our schools as at present
administered one will not find as many as one half of the
pupils in any grade belonging to any single age group. Thus
in the above table the largest age group in the eighth grade
is the group of thirteen-year-old pupils who form 34.6 per
cent of the entire grade group. In the first year of the high
school the fourteen-year-old pupils constitute 42.0 per cent
of the entire grade group. In the second year of the high
school the fifteen-year-old pupils constitute 38.7 per cent
of the entire grade group. In the third year of the high
school the sixteen-year-old pupils constitute 34.3 per cent
of the grade group. In the fourth year of the high school the
seventeen-year-old pupils constitute 34.3 per cent of the
grade group. Further, it is to be noted that until the factor
of selection operates strongly in the later years of the
secondary school the proportion of pupils belonging to any
age group which is found in any single grade of the school
rarely is as great as one-third of the entire age group found
in the entire school system. This is seen clearly from the
figures presented in Table III.

Consideration of such a typical situation as that indicated
in the tables given shows clearly that chronological age is a
very poor measure of maturity for educational purposes and
that the actual existing situation in our educational system
does not even approximately conform to the theoretical dis-
tribution of age and grade. Hence it is that the term "peda-
gogical age" is frequently employed to denote degrees of
maturity as measured by the stages of educational progress
(school grades) reached. It is obvious, however, that peda-
gogical age is a general term designed largely to eliminate
the confusion caused by the use of chronological age as a
measure of maturity and that it depends for real meaning

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL

TABLE HI. PERCENTAGES OF PUPILS OF DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS
LOCATED IN VARIOUS GRADES OF THE SCHOOLS OF SlX ClTIES.
THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PUPILS CONSIDERED WAS APPROXI-
MATELY 35,000*

Grades

Age in years

0.7%
1.9
5.8
11.7
22.1
28.2
21.6
7.0
0.9
0.1
0.0
0.0

0.2%
0.8
2.8
6.7
13.2
21.5
27.5
19.8
6.4
1.0
0.0
0.0

0.2%
0.4
1.5
3.4
7.1
12.2
21.3
28.5

<*%

0.8
0.0

0.2%
0.1
0.6
2.0
3.3
6.6
12.7
19.6
27.5

0.6

0.2%
0.1
0.4
0.6
1.4
1.9
5.8
12.6
20.7
31.0

cdg)

5.9

0.1%
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.3
0.8
1.7
4.6
10.9
26.6
27.9

2..

Ill

IV. ..

* Inglis, A. J. "A Fundamental Problem in the Reorganization of the High School,'.'
School Review, vol. xxin, p. 316.

on more fundamental measures of the two underlying and
correlated factors, physical and mental maturity. Thus we
have at least four measures of maturity: chronological age,
pedagogical age, physiological age, and psychological age.
By chronological age is meant the number of years and
months a boy or girl has lived. By pedagogical age is meant
the grade which he has reached in school or the stage of his
educational progress. By physiological age is meant the
degree of maturity which he has reached as measured by the
development of various organs and parts of the body, or of
the body as a whole. It is sometimes restricted in its appli-
cation to stages of pubescence and adolescence. By psycho-
logical or mental age is meant the degree of maturity which
the boy or girl has reached as measured by the development
of mental traits. That chronological age is by no means

8 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

parallel with pedagogical age has been suggested above.
That it is not closely paralleled by physiological age or by
psychological age is a matter of everyday observation. A
boy sixteen years of age may be less mature physiologically
and mentally than another boy twelve years of age.

The consideration of physiological age is the special pur-
pose of this chapter. The consideration of psychological age,
together with problems of the relation between psychological
age and other "ages," is the special purpose of Chapter II.

3. The growth of children in height and weight. The
phenomena of growth in height and weight are probably the
most easily observed and readily measured phenomena
affording information concerning the physical growth of
children and hence they have received the most attention.
Numerous studies afford valuable data regarding the height
and weight of children at various chronological ages. For
the present purpose we may consider the figures calculated
by Boas from data concerning 88,449 American school chil-
dren in height and about 68,000 in weight. (Tables IV-V.)

From these two tables a number of facts may be deduced:
(1) The rate of growth in height and weight as measured by
the per cent of annual increase varies at different periods
and between the sexes. (2) For boys the rate of growth in
height is relatively high (average per year 5.4 per cent)
from age 5.5 to age 8.5, is relatively low (average per year
3.25 per cent) from age 8.5 to age 12.5, and is relatively high
again (average per year 4 per cent) from age 12.5 to age 16.5
where the limit of average height for adults (about 68 inches)
is approached. (3) For boys the rate of growth in weight is
relatively high (average per year 9.8 per cent) from age 6.5
to age 8.5, is relatively low (average per year 8.95 per cent)
from age 8.5 to age 12.5, and is relatively high again (average
per year 12 per cent) from age 12.5 to age 16.5. (4) For girls
the rate of growth in height remains relatively constant from

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL

TABLE TV. AVERAGE HEIGHT OP 45,151 BOYS AND 43,298 GIRLS
IN THE SCHOOLS OF CERTAIN AMERICAN CITIES, WITH MEASURES
OF INCREASE AND VARIABILITY*

Boys

Girls

Average
age

Average annual

in
years

Average
i • 1 1

Mean

increase

Average

L -.'-.Li

Mean

increase

height
(inches)

Variation

(inches)

Inches

Per cent

height
(inches)

variation
(inches)

Inches

Per cent

5.5

41.7

1.7,

41.3

• . . \

2.2

5.3

2.0

4.8

6.5

43.9

1.8 [

43.3

1.9

2.1

4.8

2.4

5.5

7.5

46.0

2.0

45.7

2.0

2.8

6.1

2.0

4.4

8.5

48.8

2.1 {

47.7

2.2

1.2

2.5

[

2.0

4.2

9.5

50.0

2.2J

49.7

2.2!

}

1.9

3.8

2.0

4.0

10.5

51.9

2.3 '

51.7

2.4

}

1.7

3.3

2.1

4.1

11.5

53.6

2.4 (

53.8

2.6

1.8

3.4

}

2.3

4.3

12.5

55.4

2.6

56.1

2.9

}

2.1

3.8

2.4

4.3

13.5

57.5

3.0

58.5

2.8

}

2.5

4.3

1.9

3.2

14.5

60.0

3.3

60.4

2.6

2.9

4.8

1.2

2.0

15.5

62.9

3.4

61.6

2.3 |

2.0

3.2

}

0.6

1.0

16.5

64.9

3.0

62.2

2.2

1.6

2.5

0.5

0.8

17.5

66.5

4 2.8

62.7

I
"

0.9

1.4

18.5

67.4

... '

... »

* Burk, F., "Growth of Children in Height and Weight," American Journal of Psychology,
vol. ix, p. 262. Figures after Boas, F., Report of the United States Commissioner of Edu-
cation (1896-97), vol. ii, pp. 1541-99. Measurements were made on different groups of
children for the several ages.

age 7.5 to age 13.5 where the average adult limit begins to
be approached. (5) For girls the rate of growth in weight is
relatively high (average per year 10 per cent) from age 6.5
to age 8.5, is relatively low (average per year 9.5 per cent)
from age 8.5 to age 10.5, and is relatively high (average per
year 12 per cent) from age 10.5 to age 14.5. (6) Boys excel
girls in height from birth up to age about 11.5 and after
about 14.5. In weight they excel girls from birth up to

10 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE V. AVERAGE WEIGHT OF ABOUT 68,000 AMERICAN
CHILDREN IN CERTAIN CITIES, WITH THE ANNUAL INCREASES*

Boy$

Girls

age in
years

Average for
each age
(pounds)

Absolute
annual
increase
(pounds)

Annual
increase
(per cent)

Average for
each age
(pounds)

Absolute
annual
increase
(pounds)

Annual
increase
(per cent)

6.5

45.2 ,

43.4 ,

4.3

9.5

4.3

9.9

7.5

49.5

47.7

5.0

10.1

4.8

10.0

8.5

54.5

52.5

5.1

9.3

4.9

9.3

9.5

59.6 ?

57.4

5.8

9.7

5.5

9.6

10.5

65.4

62.9

5.3

8.1

6.6

10.5

11.5

70.7

69.5

6.2

8.7

9.2

13.2

12.5

76.9

78.7

7.9

10.3

10.0

12.7

13.5

84.8

88.7

10.4

12.3

9.6

11.9

14.5

95.2

98.3

12.2

12.8

8.4

8.5

15.5

107.4

106.7

13.6

12.7

.5.6

5.2

16.5

121.0 '

112.3

3.1

2.8

17.5

115.4 |

18.5

114.9 '

* From Burk, F. (after Boas), op. cit., p. 263.

about age 12.5 and after about 15.5. For a period of about
three years around the age of puberty and early adolescence
girls excel boys in height and weight. They tend to mature
earlier. (7) For girls and boys the mean variation in height
from age 8.5 on is at every age greater than the amount
of the average annual increase. This fact illustrates very
clearly the danger of applying general averages to individual

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL

cases or to small groups. "Each individual is a law unto
himself. A school child may be several inches shorter and
many pounds lighter than the average for children of his
age, race, and sex, while fully reaching the standard which
nature set. for him." l Even when we are dealing with large
groups the amount of the variability must be considered
just as important as the average. This is shown for height
in the following table:

TABLE VI. SHOWING THE FREQUENCIES OF HEIGHTS OF AMERICAN
BOYS AND GIRLS OF AGES FROM 11.5 TO 16.5 YEARS. FRE-
QUENCIES IN PER CENTS OF TOTAL AGE GROUPS*

Height in
centi-
meters

Boys : age in years

Girls : age in years

11.5

12.5

13.5

14.5

15.5

26.5

11.5

12.5

13.5

14.5

15.5

16.5

109-112
113-116
117-120
121-124
125-H8
129-132
133-136
137-140
141-144
145-148
149-152
153-156
157-160
161-164
165-168
169-172
173-176
177-180
181-184
185-188

0.2
0.2
0.4
2.5
9.1
18.1
25.5
22.3
13.9

0.3

0.2

0.1
0.7
2.7
8.8
18.2
23.3
21.2

0.1
0.3
0.9
2.6
7.6
14.9
20 9

0.6

0.2

0.2
0.3
0.6
2.0
6.1
10 8

0.1

3.1
8.6

0.7
2.1

0.2
0.3

0.2

...

18.0

6.5

1.2

0.3

0.4

1.1
4.4

0.5
1 i

23.4
20.8
14 3

13.1
19.5
21.7

3.9
10.0
14.3

1.0

2.6
6.1

0.9

2.2

0.2
1 0

5.3
1.9
0.4
0.2

13.6
7.0
3.0
1.1
0.3

19.8
14.9
10.2
4.8
1.8
0.6
0.4

17.1
18.2
17.1
11.9
8.4
3.9
2.3

7.4
13.4
15.4
16.8
14.7
12.9
8.0

1.5
5.1

7.6
13.8
18.9
20.3
19.1

6.8
S.I
0.7
0.3

16.2
11.0
5.8
2.4
0.4
0.2

20.1
21.7
16.0
8.3
3.0
0.6
0.2

12.6
22.6
26.2
16.7
8.1
2.7
0.7
0.2

6.4
18.0
27.4
23.0
14.8
5.7
1.2
0.4

4.6
13.6
23.9
26.5
18.6
8.7
2.6
0.2
0.1

0.7

3.1

7.5

0.3

1.0

3.9

0.1

0.6

0.1

* Adapted from Burk, F. (after Boas), op. cit., pp. 265-66.

The figures in this table indicate clearly the danger of
relying on averages. This is obvious from the extensive
range in height between the smallest boy or girl of any
given age and the tallest of the same age (averaging nearly
a foot and a half), from the great amount of variation in
1 Terman, L. M., The Hygiene of the School Child, p. 21.

12 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

each age group, and from the great amount of overlapping.
In general it may be said that the average height for a boy
or girl of any chronological age from 11.5 to 18.5 is equalled
or surpassed by the height of more than twenty per cent of
the boys or girls a year younger.

The variability in height and weight has been made the
basis of several investigations designed to discover what
relation, if any, exists between physical growth and mental
ability. Are children who are heavier and taller than their
fellows of the same chronological age more or less mature
mentally than the latter, or is there no relation between
physical growth (as measured by height and weight) and
mental ability? Porter maintained that there is a physical
basis for precocity and dullness, with the advantage in favor
of those physically more mature. He bases his argument
primarily on data collected and compiled by himself for the
heights and weights of about 34,500 boys and girls as related
to their pedagogical progress. While his figures apply partic-
ularly to elementary-school pupils the point which he raises
may be made clear through the presentation of data for
pupils fourteen to sixteen years of age. (Table VII.)

Porter says: "The truth which the [original] table ex-
presses is very plain. It declares in unmistakable lines that
precocious children are heavier and dull children lighter than
the mean child of the same age. It establishes a physical
basis of precocity and dullness." Boas calls attention to the
fact, however, that the figures show a correlation between
mental and physical growth but not necessarily that mental
development depends on physical growth. West further
notes that two errors are involved in Porter's results because
a number of pupils enter school at a late age and are there-
fore incorrectly counted as "dull" pupils, and because
Porter's results are capable of misinterpretation through his
method of reckoning age according to the nearest birthday.1
1 West, G. M., Science, vol. iv, pp. 156-59.

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL

TABLE VII. SHOWING THE RELATION OF SCHOOL PROGRESS TO
WEIGHT AS INDICATED BY THE DISTRIBUTION OF HEAVY AND
LIGHT CHILDREN OF THE SAME AGES IN DIFFERENT GRADES OF
THE ST. Louis SCHOOLS*

Age at near-
ett birthday

Mean weight
(pounds')

Average weight of children in grades

Elementary school

High
School

,. ( Boys
14 { Girls

88.08
03.94

81.00
90.50

84.00
87.17

87.83
92.67

87.20
94.64

93.63
96.15

97.50
99.00

86.50
103.12

,, (Boys
15 I Girls

100.20
103.20

—

89.00
98.50

95 . 33
100.96

99.17
99.83

105.50
104.00

105.17
104.58

105.08
105.15

i« ) Boys
16 { Girls

114.17
110.00

—

114 .50
108.12

104.00
107.38

114.00
110.29

123.00
113.37

* Adapted from Burk, F. (after Porter), op. cit., pp. 296-97.

Boas, using data collected by West at Toronto, made a com-
parison of the relative brightness of children and their stages
of physical development in weight.1 The results which he
obtained were diametrically opposed to those found by
Porter, though his results cannot be accepted as satisfac-
torily obtained because of methods employed in determining
the "brightness" of pupils on the basis of teachers' judg-
ments. MacDonald,2 using the teachers' estimates of
"brightness," and Smedley,3 using age and grade progress
as measures, found that "bright" children were taller and
heavier than "dull" children. Baldwin4 distinguishes be-
tween "precocity" and advanced stages of mental matura-
tion, and, basing his conclusions on the school grades and

1 Boas, F., Science, vol. i, pp. 225-30.

2 MacDonald, A., Report of the United States Commissioner of Education
(1897-98), vol. i, pp. 989-1204; vol. n, pp. 1281-90.

3 Smedley, F. W., Report of the Department of Child Study of the Public
Schools, Chicago, vol. 2, pp. 10-48.

4 Baldwin, B. T., Physical Growth and School Progress, pp. 89-90.

14 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

physical growth measured in the same children at different
ages, states that tall children are older physiologically and
more mature mentally, though frequently not as bright.
Gilbert1 claims a lack of correlation. The conflicting con-
clusions reached by the different investigators render the
problem complex. However, the consensus of opinion that
feeble-minded children are commonly inferior in height and
weight could lend support to the theory that there is an
important correlation between mental ability and physical
growth in height and weight. Terman claims: "For masses,
however, the relationship undoubtedly holds."2 Porter's
suggestion is not without importance that: "No child whose
weight or height is below the average (median or norm) for
its age should be permitted to enter a school grade beyond
the average of its age except after such a physical examina-
tion as shall make it probable that the child's strength is
equal to the strain."3

4. The growth of organs and parts of the body. It is some-
times thought that the process of growth throughout the
body is essentially uniform and that the various organs and
parts of the body develop at about the same rates and in
about the same proportions at different stages. Such a con-
ception is erroneous. Growth is relative in the various
organs and parts of the body. Each organ and part has its
own rate of development. After initial rapid development
in babyhood some organs and parts develop at a fairly con-
stant rate until the limits of growth are approached. Others
develop rapidly in early childhood and more slowly later.
Still others manifest a relatively rapid rate of development in

1 Gilbert, J. A., Researches on School Children and College Students, Studies
from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, vol. I, pp. 1-39.

2 Terman, L. M., The Hygiene of the School Child, pp. 27-29.

3 Porter, W. T., The Physical Basis of School Progress, Transactions of
the St. Louis Academy of Science, vol. 6, pp. IGl-bl.

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL

early childhood, then a period of relatively slow develop-
ment, followed again by a relatively rapid rate of develop-
ment. The various organs and parts of the body which have
been measured carefully in their development manifest
widely varying rates of growth.1 Growth in height and
weight may be and probably is significant of activity in the
growth processes of various organs and parts of the body
whose rates of development vary widely from each other
and from such total growth as can be measured by height
and weight.

In the following table are presented figures for growth in
vital capacity and in the circumference of the head.

TABLE VIII*

Vital capacity in cubic centimeters

Circumference of the head in millimeters

(Smedley)

(MacDonald)

Age

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

Norm

Increase

Norm

Increase

Norm

Increase

Norm

Increase

1023

950

513.6

506.2

1168

14.2

1061

11.7

519.4

11.10

606.5

0.06

1316

12.7

1165

9.1

520.0

0.29

511.6

1.01

1469

11.6

1286

10.4

523.5

0.50

615.4

0.74

1603

9.1

1409

9.6

526.5

0.57

518.9

0.68

173*

8.0

1526

8.3

528.8

0.44

521.7

0.54

1883

8.7

1664

9.0

531.9

0.58

527.8

1.17

8108

12.0

1827

9.8

633.7

0.34

532.1

0.81

2395

13.6

2014

10.2

538.7

0.93

538.0

1.11

2697

12.6

2168

7.6

544.8

1.13

540.5

0.46

3120

15.7

2266

4.5

550.4

1.03

643.0

0.46

3483

11.3

2319

2.3

555.5

0.93

547.4

0.81

3655

4.0

2343

1.0

556.5

0.18

548.6

0.22

* Table adapted and increments derived by the writer from data given by Smedley,

F. W., Report of the Department of Child-Study, Chicago, vol. 2, pp. 13-14, and from Whipple,

G. M. (after MacDonald, A.), Manual of Menial and Physical Testa, Part I, pp. 88-89.

Hall claims that the lungs share in the augmented devel-
opment of adolescence. Smedley claims that girls increase

1 Cf. Hall, G. S., Adolescence; and Weissenberg, S., Das Wachstum des
Menschen naeh Alter.

16 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

most rapidly in vital capacity from 12 to 14, after which the
increment is at a diminished rate; that boys take a sudden
start upward at 14, and continue a rapid rise until at least
19|; and that boys have a larger vital capacity than girls at
all ages. Baldwin and Smedley claim that there is a positive
correlation between vital capacity and school standing.
Gilbert claims that there is no correlation.

It is tempting to take the development of the skull as
indicating a possible measurement of the development of
the brain and nervous system. Such a theory is in all prob-
ability quite untenable, inasmuch as the development of
the head in circumference is largely due to the growth of the
bones of the skull and the weight of the brain does not in-
crease in the same proportion as intelligence. The most
appropriate analogy between the development of mental
traits and physical traits would naturally be concerned with
the development of the nervous system and especially of
the brain. It is recognized, however, that the development
of mental traits depends not so much on the increase of the
brain in mass as measured by size or weight as on the
development of neurone cells and their interconnections.
On this our present knowledge sheds little light and infer-
ences are dangerous. To argue for a parallelism of mental
development and physical development by analogy, and then
to argue that there is correspondence in the development of
the nervous system following from the supposed develop-
ment of mental traits, is to argue in a vicious circle. Concern-
ing the development of the nervous system Terman's state-
ments are here appropriate:

Compared to the rest of the body, the central nervous system
shows a precocious growth in size and weight. At birth the brain
has already attained about one fourth of its final size, and by seven
years over ninety per cent. Growth continues much retarded up
to about fourteen, and then practically ceases. But here, least of

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 17

all, does weight give any idea as to maturity. The cells of the
brain, although all present in embryonic, granule form for several
months preceding birth, only gradually ripen into their fully
differentiated structure and put forth their branching network of
dendrites. . . . The acquisition of the medullary sheath, which we
have above spoken of as the ripening process, proceeds rapidly
in the sensory centers and more gradually in the frontal portion,
named by Flechsig the "association centers." This includes almost
two thirds of the cerebral cortex, which together with the middle
sheath of tangential fibers, shows remarkable and important
changes in the cellular development of later adolescence, the
changes continuing probably as late as forty years.1

Studies of the growth of the bones of the body have em-
phasized the variations in the development of parts of the
body in two rather noteworthy respects. The researches of
Rotch and Pryor indicate that anatomical development, as
measured by stages in ossification, is largely independent of
chronological age and of development in height or weight,
except in the most general way. They further indicate that
girls are more advanced than boys at every age with respect
to the stage of ossification of the epiphyseal cartilage, though
in height, weight, and possibly in vital capacity, such supe-
riority on the part of girls is found only as previously indi-
cated from about twelve to about fourteen.2

5. Physical development in relation to health. On the
whole it appears probable that mortality is lowest and the
capacity to resist disease highest at ages about ten to four-
teen, or preceding and during the early stages of pu-
berty. Accurate figures are difficult to secure and still more
difficult to interpret. In 1910-11 for certain registration
areas of the United States the uncorrected death rates
for various age groups were as indicated in the following
table:

1 Terman, L. M., The Hygiene of the School Child, pp. 57-58.

2 Ibid., pp. 62-63.

18 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE IX. DEATH-RATES PER 1000 POPULATION FOR VARIOUS
AGE GROUPS IN 1910-11*

22 slates

60 cities

Male

Female

Both sexes

Male

Female

Both sexes

1- 4 years

12.2

11.3

11.8

15.3

13.9

14.6

5- 9 "

3.2

3.0

3.1

4.0

3.6

3.8

10-14 "

2.3

2.1

2.2

2.9

2.5

2.7

15-19 "

3.8

3.5

3.6

4.5

4.0

4.3

20-24 "

5.4

5.0

5.2

6.6

5.7

6.1

* Compiled by the writer from data given on pp. 16-17 of Department of Commerce,
Bureau of the Census, Mortality Statistics (1911). Figures for cities are in terms of the
average rates for fifty cities each of 100,000 population or over.

Hartwell's figures for death rates in the City of Boston
were obtained more than twenty-five years ago. In terms
of deaths per thousand for various ages they are indicated
in the following table:

TABLE X*

Age

Male

Female

Age

Male

Female

4- 5

20.73

21.55

12-13

3.44

4.30

5- 6

14.85

16.44

13-14

4.18

6.17

6- 7

13.40

14.38

14-15

3.98

5.83

7- 8

9.35

9.62

15-16

5.31

5.89

8- 9

6.09

8.11

16-17

6.58

6.57

9-10

7.41

5.11

17-18

6.43

7.94

10-11

4.77

5.23

18-19

10.48

6.32

11-12

4.28

3.23

19-20

10.35

10.48

* Hartwell, E. M., Report on Physical Education in the Boston Public Schools.

Such figures as those presented in these two tables must
be interpreted with great caution. The removal at early
ages of those who are more susceptible to illness and death
constantly makes each successive group more select in

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 19

bealth so that the decrease in the death-rate from childhood
to puberty may in no direct way be related to development
with age. It is to be noted also that preventive medicine
and improved hygiene tend to decrease the death-rate at
early ages and tend to increase it at later ages. In this con-
nection it may be mentioned that Hartwell found that the
age of the minimum death-rate was the thirteenth year in
1875, the fourteenth year in 1885, and the fifteenth year
in 1890.

It is frequently stated that the period of puberty and
early adolescence is characterized by low mortality rates and
a high resistance to diseases of a serious character, but by a
susceptibility to minor illnesses. The evidence in all cases
is by no means clear. Neither is it clear that a low rate of
mortality, if it is found for puberty, is necessarily related
to the phenomena of development. On the whole Terman's
statements concerning investigations in this field are appro-
priate.1

Investigations on this point are somewhat contradictory, but
indicate on the whole that, although the mortality rate is lowest
when the adolescent acceleration is greatest, morbid conditions
of both mind and body are at that time most frequent. This is
particularly true of girls. It is necessary, however, to discriminate
diseases and to determine the curve of liability of each. To lump
together diseases and complaints of every kind and to enumerate
them as so many "illnesses" or "defects" is of doubtful value, at
best, and may be misleading.

Many more and much more accurate investigations are
necessary before we may, with any certainty, determine the
relation of health to maturity or the phenomena of develop-
ment.

6. The physiological phenomena of adolescence. "Ado-
lescence" (from the Latin adolescere — to grow up, to ma-
1 Terman, L. M., The Hygiene of the Scliool Child, p. 26.

20 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

tare) is the term applied to that stage of development of
boys and girls between the approximate ages of twelve
and twenty, when the procreative powers are developing.
"Puberty" is the term applied to the initial stage of physio-
logical development at adolescence.1 From its beginning
secondary education has been closely associated with the
period of puberty and adolescence and in many ways its
character has frequently been determined, directly or indi-
rectly, by the physiological phenomena connected with that
period of development. Thus among primitive peoples what
formal education existed was related to the initiatory rites
and ceremonies which took place at puberty or during
adolescence. Among the Greeks the very terms employed
to characterize certain forms or stages of education indi-
cated the connection between education and puberty.2 At
the present time the period of secondary education either
coincides with or is included in the period of puberty or
early adolescence so that any fruitful analysis of physical
or physiological development and of secondary education
requires careful study of the phenomena of adolescence.
Such an analysis is of great importance for the proper under-
standing and treatment of adolescent boys and girls in direct
connection with the physical and physiological traits them-
selves. It becomes increasingly important in view of the
correlation sometimes claimed between physiological and
mental traits and in view of certain indirect effects of physi-
cal or physiological traits on mental traits through the
determination of subjective attitudes.

If puberty began for all children or even for all boys or all
girls at approximately the same chronological age, problems

1 In its strict sense puberty has reference to the growth of hair on the
body.

2 Eirenic and ephebic from etpyv and I0e£oj = having attained the age of
puberty, from M = at and ?j/3i? = puberty, the state of being marriageable.

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL

arising out of the phenomena of adolescence would be much
less complicated than they are. The date of the onset of
puberty varies both for boys and for girls. It varies accord-
ing to race, according to climate, and according to many
other conditions. Hence, from the mere fact of chronological
age one cannot predicate that a child is immature, maturing,
or already mature. This appears clearly from the results
obtained by Crampton who measured 3825 boys in the high
schools of New York City and classified them in three groups
of the prepubescent (immature), pubescent (maturing), and
postpubescent (mature).

TABLE XI. DISTRIBUTION OF BOYS BY CHRONOLOGICAL AGE
AND BY PHYSIOLOGICAL AGE AS MEASURED BY STAGES OP
PUBESCENCE *

Mean age in years

Prepubescent
(immature)

Pubescent
(maturing)

Postpubescent
(mature)

12.25

(8D%

(16)%

(*)%

12.75

13.25

13.75

14.25

14.75

15.25

15.75

16.25

16.75

17.25

17.75

100

* Crampton, C. W., "Physiological Age — A Fundamental Principle," American
Physical Education Review, vol. xm, p. 150.

The change from prepubescence to pubescence is most
noticeable from age 13.75 to age 14.25.

The other ages immediately preceding . this, however, are also
popular, and the average date is much earlier than the mean date.
For the ending of prepubescence and the beginning of pubescence

22 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

the middle of the mean year is 14.00 years, the average date is
13.44 years with a variability (mean square deviation) of 1.51
years.1

This means that it requires a range of about three years
to include approximately two thirds of the cases. The full
significance of this variability is noted by Crampton:

If the immature differed from the mature in no other way than
this particular sign, it would hardly be worth while to segregate
these groups. The classification shows, however, that there is a
striking physical change in the progress from immaturity to matur-
ity. At characteristic ages, the mature are more than 33 per cent
heavier, 10 per cent taller, and 33 per cent stronger than the
immature.

To substantiate this statement he presents among others
the following figures:

TABLE XII *

Average weight in

Average height in

Average strength of

Age

kilograms

centimeters

grip in kilograms

years

Prepu-
bescent

Pubes-
cent

Postpu-
bescent

Prepu-
bescent

Pubes-
cent

Postpu-
bescent

Prepu-
bescent

Pubes-
cent

Postpu-
bescent

12.75

25.2

36.6

(50.8)

144.0

147.5

150.5

26.6

28.2

(32.5)

13.25

35.0

37.2

44.3

144.2

148.7

153.9

26.3

28.1

33.6

13.75

35.4

37.9

43.8

145.7

150.4

155.9

27.6

30.4

85.2

14.25

35.2

38.6

45.4

146.6

150.6

157.9

27.3

30.2

37.8

14.75

36.8

39.0

47.2

147.3

151.7

158.9

29.4

30.8

38.3

15.25

37.9

38.8

47.7

149.8

151.5

160.7

29.6

31.1

40.1

15.75

36.7

41.8

49.3

149.8

153.1

162.6

32.5

30.4

42.9

16.25

(40.0)

38.3

51.6

151.0

152.4

164.6

31.7

29.6

43.8

16.75

(42.5)

(41.5)

53.5

(153.0)

(151.4)

165.4

(27.5)

33.2

48.3

* Crampton, C. W., "The Influence of Physiological Age on Scholarship," The Psycho-
logical Clinic, vol. i, pp. 117-18.

The correlation between stages of puberty and such physi-
cal traits as height and weight is indicated by these data.
The correlation between physical development in height and
1 Crampton, C. W., op. cit., p. 146.

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 23

weight and mental ability or school progress was considered
in a preceding section. Crampton maintains:

Greater height, weight, and strength are related to better scholar-
ship because they are all effects of the same cause, — earlier
pubescence. ... It is possible that if this factor were to be elimi-
nated there would appear a minus instead of a plus relation between
scholarship and weight.1

These statements he bases on the results obtained by com-
paring the average status in physical traits of boys of the
same chronological age and the same physiological age
groups which differed only in pedagogical age by one high-
school term, and by observing the rate of success and fail-
ure of boys of each chronological age and physiological age
group. Employing the latter method he found that postpu-
bescents were more successful, eighteen per cent failing to
pass into the next form as against twenty -seven per cent of
failure for the prepubescents at thirteen years of age. At
the age of fourteen the per cents of failure were twenty-four
and thirty-four respectively; at fifteen they were twenty-nine
and thirty-six. As a result he maintains that earlier pubes-
cence favors good scholarship and later pubescence poorer
scholarship.

Variability also characterizes the date of the appearance
and development of pubescence among girls. This is shown
in Table XIII.

From these figures the following conclusions may be
drawn: (1) the date of the onset of puberty is highly variable
for girls; (2) girls of the same chronological age differ widely
with respect to their stages of physiological maturity as
measured by puberty; (3) less than five per cent of girls are
still prepubescent at the age of fifteen; (4) pubescence begins
for girls earlier than for boys.

7. Some implications for secondary education. As a result

1 Crampton, C. W., op. cit., pp. 118-19.

24 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE XIII. DISTRIBUTION OF 1241 GIRLS BY CHRONOLOGICAL
AGE AND STAGES OF PUBERTY*

Mean age in years

Prepubescent
(immature)

Pubescent (maturing)

Postpubescent
(mature)

10.0

100.00%

0.00%

10.5

93.75

6.25

0.00

11.0

100.00

0.00

11.5

78.84

19.23

1.92

12.0

62.06

37.93

0.00

12.5

58.20

23.88

17.91

13.0

39.53

34.88

25.58

13.5

15.15

37.87

46.96

14.0

15.38

38.46

46.15

14.5

4.83

17.74

77.42

15.0

0.00

14.54

JB5.45

15.5

1.55

7.81

90.62

16.0

2.04

6.12

91.83

16.5

0.00

3.17

96.83

17.0

0.00

100.00

* Baldwin, B. T., "A Measuring Scale for Physical Growth and Physiological Age,"
Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, part I, chap, i, p. 17.
The relatively small number of cases examined precludes any exact interpretation and
explains some minor fluctuations. The general tendency is, however, obvious.

of his study of physiological age in connection with high-
school pupils Crampton recommends:

Where mature and immature children are now brought together
in the same class in the elementary or high school, they should
be separated into different classes, so that the pedagogical, ethical
and social treatment to which they are subjected may be better
adapted to their disparate and distinct requirements and abilities.1

An experiment carried on in a New York City high
school more or less sustained Crampton's thesis. Foster,
giving the results of that experiment, presents the following
figures:

1 Crampton, C. W., " Anatomical or Physiological Age: versus Chron-
ological Age," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xv, p. 236.

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL
TABLE XIV *

Registered
number

Discharges
(per cent)

Failures
(per cent)

Promotions
(per cent)

Eight classes arranged
by physiological age . -.
Four classes not arranged
by physiological age . .
Previous class not ar-
ranged by physiological
age. .

295
149

818

20
.31

19
17

61
52

_* Foster, W. L., "Physiological Age as a Basis for the Classification of Pupils entering
High Schools," Psychological Clinic, vol. iv, p. 86.

From these and other results Foster drew the following
conclusions:

(1) It is more agreeable for boys of the same development to
associate with one another. (2) A classification of high school stu-
dents according to physiological age, based on pubescence, is easy
and practical. (3) By an experiment in a New York City high
school it was shown that the efficiency of the students was increased
by such a classification. The percentage of discharges was very
materially decreased (from 7 per cent to 11 per cent decrease).
(4) This increased efficiency is due to pleasanter associations with
students of the same development. (5) There exists a very close
relationship between pubescence and height. (6) In schools where
physical examination is impossible, a classification according to
height would probably produce almost the same results.1

Such statements are dangerous when made on the basis of
such limited investigations as those of Foster.

The classification suggested by Crampton and by Foster,
however promising it may appear when considered apart
from the exigencies of school administration, presents cer-
tain difficulties when considered in relation to the ordinary
demands of administration in the secondary school. Any
1 Foster, VV. L., op. tit., p. 88.

26 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

scheme of classification which increases the homogeneity of
the groups to be taught in one direction without decreasing
it in another may be considered a priori as a means of im-
proving teaching and increasing the measure of success.
Hence it is to be expected that where conditions permit the
division of pupils in a given grade into groups roughly homo-
geneous with respect to the stages of physiological develop-
ment (or any other important factor), better results may be
looked for. In a large secondary school such a classification
is frequently possible. In a small school, or even one of
average size, such a subdivision of classes is impossible. Of
the 11,674 public high schools in the United States in 1914-
15 less than one tenth (990) were in cities of 8000 population
or over and 10,684 were in communities of less than 8000
population each. In smaller communities the "average"
high school has 62 pupils. The "average" high school for
the country at large has about 114 pupils, distributed some-
what as follows: 47 (41 per cent) in the, first-year class, 30
(27 per cent) in the second-year class, 21 (19 per cent) in
the third-year class, and 16 (14 per cent) in the fourth-year
class.' It is obvious that in the great majority of public
secondary schools it is impracticable to subdivide classes for
the purpose of segregating boys or girls or both according to
degrees of pubescence.

Far more practicable and far more justifiable is the sug-
gestion of Baldwin: ]

Therefore, the obvious educational corollary is that our school
systems, public and private, should take into careful consideration
the physiological age and the accompanying stages of mental maturity
of boys and girls, rather than the chronological age and brightness,
as is now done. This would require that tall, healthy children of
accelerated development be encouraged to proceed through school

1 Baldwin, B. T., " A Measuring Scale for Physical Growth and Physio-
logical Age," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu-
cation, part i, pp. 15-17.

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 27

as rapidly as possible within the limits of thoroughness, and that
small, light children of retarded physiological development be
kept below or in the normal grade, doing supplementary work,
since these short, light 'pupils are immature in mental development,
although in many cases precocious in degree of brightness.

Incomplete though our knowledge o" physiological age is,
it is sufficient to put us on guard against the practice of
ignoring it as a factor of importance in school organization
and administration. In a later section attention will be
called to the fact that the practice of determining promo-
tion by pedagogical age alone should be supplemented by
recognition of physiological age, psychological age, chrono-
logical age, and social age.

8. The distribution of pupils according to puberty. Some
conception of the complexity of problems involved in at-
tempts to adjust education to stages of maturity according
to puberty may be gained from an analysis of the pupil pop-
ulation of a school system. In Tables XV-XVIII an esti-
mate is made of such a distribution of pupils in the schools
of Paterson New Jersey, in 1913.

From these figures, and from more extended tables on
which those given are based, a number of facts may be
deduced:

(1) Prepubescent, pubescent, and postpubescent children
were found in almost every grade of the school system, the
proportion of prepubescents gradually decreasing and the
proportion of postpubescents gradually increasing.

(2) Particularly noteworthy is the fact that the ratio of
prepubescent boys to postpubescent boys is almost exactly
inverted from 56/22 in the seventh grade to 22/58 in the
ninth grade, while a similar ratio for girls is approximately
inverted from 58/21 in the sixth grade to 18/57 in the eighth
grade. Herein are observable : (a) the earlier pubescence of
girls; (6) the transitional character of grades 6/7 to I.

28 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE XV. PERCENTAGES OF PREPUBESCENT, PUBESCENT, AND

POSTPUBESCENT PUPILS IN VARIOUS GRADES OF THE PATERSON

(N.J.) SCHOOLS IN NOVEMBER, 1913 *

Boys

Girls

Both

•e

e
a

•n?

•e
g

a S

"§

5* •**

J
1

JS,

^J 05

°e s

J
1

1
J

J
I
1

•S s

s"a

3
g,

1
g,

ft, 3

1"!

«H

ft.

100

III

100

TABLE XVI. DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO CERTAIN IMPORTANT
DIVISIONS — NUMBERS

Grades

Boys

Girls

Both

Pre-
pubes-
cent

Pubes-
cent

Post-
pubes-
cent

Pre-
pubes-
cent

Pubes-
cent

Post

pubes-
cent

Pre-
pubes-
cent

Pubes-
cent

Post-
pubes-
cent

1-8
I-IV....

1-IV....

l-«

7-1
II-IV. . .

7053
121

665
125

688
629

6267

828
96

1020
743

13320
163

1593
121

1708
1372

7174

790

1317

6309

924

1763

13483

1714

3080

6404
73B
32

363
381
46

254
665
398

5886
415
8

470
325
29

366
899
498

12290
1153
M

833
706
75

620
1564
896

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL

TABLE XVII. DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO CERTAIN IMPORTANT
DIVISIONS — PER CENTS

Grades

Boys

Girls

Both

Pre-
pubes-
cent

Pubes-
cent

Post-
pubes-
cent

Pre-
pubes-
cent

Pubes-
cent

Post-
pubes-
cent

Pre-
pubes-
cent

Pubes-
cent

Post-
pubes-
cent

1-8 . .
I-IV....

1-IV....

1-6...
7-1
II-IV...

98.3
1.7

84.1
15.9

52.3

4Y.7

99.4
0.6

89.6
10.4

57.8

42.2

98.9
1.1

86.9
13.1

55.4
44.6

100.0

89.4
10.1
0.5

45.9
48.2
5.9

19.1
50.7
30.2

93.4
6.5
0.1

50.9
45.9
3.2

20.7
51.0
28.3

91.2
8.6
0.2

48.8
46.6
4.6

20.1
50.8
29.1

Explanation: Of prepubescent boys in the schools 98.3 per cent were in grades 1-8 and 1.7
per cent were in grades I-IV, etc.

TABLE XVIII. DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO STAGE OF PUBERTY
IN VARIOUS DIVISIONS — PER CENTS

Boys

Girls

Both

Grades

Pre-
pubes-
cent

Pubes-
cent

Post-
pubes-
cent

Pre-
pubes-
cent

Pubes-
cent

Post-
pubes-
cent

Pre-
pubes-
cent

Pubes-
cent

Post-
pubes-
cent

1-8..
I-IV.

83.9
13.8

7.9
14.3

8.2
71.9

77.2
4.8

10.2
10.9

12.6
84.3

80.1
9.3

9.6
12.6

10.3
78.1

1-6..
7-1..
II-IV

91.2
41.4
6.7

5.2
21.3
9.7

3.6
37.3
83.6

87.5
25.3
1.5

7.0
19.8
5.4

5.5
54.9
93.1

89.4
33.7
4.0

6.1
20.6
7.4

4.5
45.7
88.6

Explanation: Of all boys in grades 1-8 (elementary school) 83.9 per cent were prepu-
:scent, 7.9 per cent were pubescent, and 8.2 per cent were postpubescent, etc.

besce

(3) Of all the immature (prepubescent) boys and girls in
the public schools of Paterson in 1913 all but about one per
cent were in the elementary school (grades 1-8).

(4) Of all the maturing (pubescent) boys more than five
sixths were in the elementary school: of all the pubescent

30 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

girls nearly^ nine tenths were in the elementary school : of all
pubescent pupils (boys and girls together) more than six
sevenths were in the elementary school. The largest per^
centage of pubescent pupils (about 21 per cent) was found
in the seventh grade. About six per cent of pubescent boys,
about three per cent of pubescent girls, and about five per
cent of pubescent pupils were found in grades II, III, IV of
the high school. Other pubescent pupils were about equally
divided between the division comprising grades 1-6 and the
division comprising grades 7-1, More pubescent boys were
in the sixth grade than in the entire high school, more pubes-
cent girls in the fifth grade than in the entire high school,
and more pubescent pupils in the fifth grade than in the
entire high school.

(5) Of all the mature boys (postpubescents) in the schools
more than one half were in the elementary school (grades
1-8) . Of all the mature girls more than one half were in the
elementary school. Of all mature pupils more than one half
were in the elementary school and less than one half in the
high school. More than one half of the postpubescent pupils
of either sex were in grades 7, 6, 1. Less than one third of all
postpubescent pupils were in grades II, III, IV, of the high
school. The largest number of postpubescent pupils was in
the eighth grade. Two thirds as many postpubescent pupils
were in grades 1-6 as in grades II-IV. There were more post-
pubescent girls in the sixth grade than in any grade of the
high school except grade I.

(6) Of all boys in grades 1-8 of the elementary school
84 per cent were prepubescent, 8 per cent were pubescent,
and 8 per cent postpubescent; of all the girls 77 per cent were
prepubescent, 10 per cent pubescent, and 13 per cent post-
pubescent; of all pupils in the elementary school (grades 1-8)
80 per cent were prepubescent, 10 per cent pubescent, and
10 per cent postpubescent.

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 31

(7) Of all boys in the high school (grades I-IV) 14 per
cent were prepubescent, 14 per cent pubescent, and 72 per
cent postpubescent; of all the girls 5 per cent were pre-
pubescent, 11 per cent pubescent, and 84 per cent post-
pubescent; of all pupils in the high school 9 per cent were
prepubescent, 13 per cent pubescent, and 78 per cent post-
pubescent.

(8) Of all boys in grades 1-6 of the elementary school
91 per cent were prepubescent, 5 per cent pubescent, and
4 per cent postpubescent; of all the girls in those grades 88
per cent were prepubescent, 7 per cent pubescent, and 5 per
cent postpubescent; of all pupils in those grades 89 per cent
were prepubescent, 6 per cent pubescent, and 5 per cent
postpubescent.

(9) Of all boys in grades 7, 8, I (last two grades of the
elementary school and first grade of the high school) 41
per cent were prepubescent, 21 per cent pubescent, and
37 per cent postpubescent; of all the girls in those grades 25
per cent were prepubescent, 20 per cent pubescent, and
55 per cent postpubescent; of all pupils in those grades 34 per
cent were prepubescent, 20 per cent pubescent, and 46
per cent postpubescent.

(10) Of all boys in grades II-IV (high school II, III, IV)
7 per cent were prepubescent, 10 per cent pubescent, and
84 per cent postpubescent; of all girls in those grades 2 per
cent were prepubescent, 5 per cent pubescent, and 93 per
cent postpubescent; of all pupils in those grades 4 per cent
were prepubescent, 7 per cent pubescent, and 89 per cent
postpubescent.

While these figures can apply with exactness to one city
only, it is quite probable that they would hold true approxi-
mately for the majority of school systems. A number of city
school systems examined in the same way indicate similar
conditions. Certainly it is true that no simple means can be

32 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

found to relate the organization of the school system to the
complexities found in the phenomena of puberty.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. How do differences between boys and girls in the rates of physical
development affect the problem of coeducation?

2. What administrative problems would be affected by the classification
of pupils according to physiological age? How would they be affected?

3. What organs and parts of the body show increased rates of development
at adolescence? Which do not? Can any one age be set to cover all
cases? (Cf. Hall, G. S., Adolescence, vol. i.)

4. Show how growth in height or weight may affect mental traits by caus-
ing changes in environmental (social) conditions.

5. Compare any two boys or any two girls of approximately the same
age (e.g., between 14.0 and 15.0) and note all the differences in phys-
ical traits you can. Do any of the observed differences cause differ-
ences in the treatment of them by other people?

6. Reduce the age-grade distribution table of any secondary school to
terms of per cents and note the variability.

7. Arrange about one hundred boys or girls of any secondary school grade
in the order of their scholastic records (marks) : arrange them in the
order of their ages: arrange them in the order of their heights or
weights. How do the three arrangements compare?

8. Apply the tables of Crampton (Table XI) and of Baldwin (Table XIII)
to the age-grade distribution of any school system. Compare with the
tables given for Paterson. (Cf. Tables XV-XVIII.)

9. Compare boys of the same chronological age (reckoned within a six-
months range) but in different school grades, as to their physical devel-
opment (height, weight, etc.) . Do the same for girls.

10. Compare the boys who leave school during the first year of the second-
ary school with those who remain, as to height, weight, etc.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Baldwin, B. T., Physical Growth and School Progress, Bureau of Education,
Bulletin (1914), no. 10. Bibliography of 336 titles.

Baldwin, B. T., "A Measuring Scale for Physical Growth and Physio-
logical Age," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of
Education, part i, pp. 11-22.

Baldwin, B. T., "The Normal Child: Its Physical Growth and Mental
Development," Popular Science Monthly, vol. LXXXV, pp. 559 ff.

Boas, F., " On Dr. William Townsend Porter's Investigation of the Growth
of School Children of St. Louis," Science, vol. i, pp. 225-30.

PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 33

Boas, F., "Growth of School Children," Science, vol. xx, pp. 351-52.

Boas, F., "Growth of American Children," Report of the United States
Commissioner of Education (1896-97), vol. n, pp. 1541-59. •

Burk, F., " Growth of Children, in Height and Weight," American Journal
of Psychology, vol. rx, pp. 253-326. Bibliography.

Burnham, W. H., "The Study of Adolescence," Pedagogical Seminary, vol.
i, pp. 174-95.

Crampton, C. W., " Physiological Age — A Fundamental Principle,"
American Physical Education Review, vol. xm, pp. 141-54, 214-27, 268-
83, 345-58.

Crampton, C. W., " Anatomical or Physiological Age versus Chronological
Age," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xv, pp. 230-37.

Crampton, C. W., "The Influence of Physiological Age on Scholarship,"
Psychological Clinic, vol. i, pp. 115-20.

De Busk, B. W., " The Vital Index in Development," Pedagogical Seminary,
vol. xxiv, pp. 1-18.

Foster, W. L., " Physiological Age as a Basis for the Classification of Pupils
Entering High Schools — Relation of Pubescence to Height," Psycho-
logical Clinic, vol. iv, pp. 83-88.

Gilbert, J. A., "Researches on the Mental and Physical Development of
School Children," Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, vol. n,
pp. 40-100.

Hall, G. S., Adolescence.

Hartwell, E. M., "Reports on Physical Training in the Boston Public
Schools," Boston School Committee Report, 1894-95, pp. 181-200.

King, I., The High School Age, especially chapter n.

King, I., " Physiological Age and School Standing," Psychological Clinic,
vol. vi, pp. 222-29.

McDonald, A., " Experimental Study of Children," Report of the United
States Commissioner of Education (1897-98), vol. i, pp. 985-1204.

Porter, W. T., " Growth of School Children," Report of the Academy of Sci-
ence of St. Louis, vol. vi, pp. 263-380.

Porter, W. T., "The Physical Basis of Precocity and Dullness," Transac-
tions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, vol. vi, pp. 161-8-1.

Smedley, F. W., Report of the Development of Child Study and Pedagogic
Investigation of the Chicago Public Schools, vol. 11, pp. 10-48.

Stewart, S. F., " A Study of Physical Growth and School Standing of Boys,"
Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. vn, pp. 414-26.

Terman, L. M., The Hygiene of the School Child, pp. 13-71.

West, G. M., " Observation of the Relation of Physical Development to
the Intellectual Ability Made on the School Children of Toronto, Can-
ada," Science, vol. iv, pp. 156-59.

CHAPTER II

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL: MENTAL TRAITS

9. Secondary education and the development of mental
traits. While education is fundamentally and primarily
conditioned by physical traits of the pupils, secondary edu-
cation is more directly and immediately concerned for the
most part with mental traits. Predominantly it is a process
of producing, directing, or preventing changes in the neurone
connections which control and determine mental traits. It
follows, therefore, that the greater is our knowledge of men-
tal traits and the nature of their development, the more
intelligently and efficiently can the process of education be
conducted. As was suggested in the previous chapter our
knowledge of physical traits and the nature of their develop-
ment is very inadequate. Even less adequate and reliable is
our knowledge of mental traits. Indeed, it may be said that
no single psychological trait has ever been adequately
measured and that .the most painstaking investigations have
failed to afford evidence which is entirely satisfactory.
Nevertheless such evidence as we have suggests certain
general tendencies which it is our duty to recognize until
further investigation either confirms or invalidates. An
analysis of all the mental traits involved in secondary edu-
cation lies far beyond the scope of this book and in fact far
beyond the bounds of available knowledge. All that can be
attempted here is a brief consideration of a few fundamental
traits and of certain problems of great importance for
secondary education. The chapter will deal: (I) with the
development of mental traits with age; (II) with the order

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 35

of the development of mental traits; (III) with the relation
of adolescence to the development of mental traits.

As in the consideration of the development of physical
traits in the preceding chapter the reader should be warned
against certain misconceptions and misinterpretations. He
should be warned that the statistical data presented must
be considered as indicative of general tendencies rather than
as exact and conclusive evidence as to details. He should
remember that mental traits are highly susceptible to the
influence of training and hence that in every case such
measurements as those presented indicate the status of a
mental trait due both to inner growth determined by nature
and to training through exercise, so that it is impossible to
separate the two fg.ot.nrs of natnrft p.nd nurture and the status
indicated represents an actual but not a necessary condi-
tion. Finally it must be remembered that where statistical
data are presented one must always keep in mind the dan-
gers of drawing conclusions from a relatively small number
of cases or of interpreting as normal a status determined
from the measurement of a select group.

I. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL TRAITS WITH AGE

10. The development of mental traits with age. It is an
extremely difficult task to determine the status of any men-
tal trait at any given age in such a way as to measure the
effect of maturity or inborn tendencies alone, and eliminate
the measurement of the influence of training or the environ-
ment. Commonly the status of any mental trait at any i
time represents the combined effect of inborn tendencies!
and of training so that it is practically impossible to iso-
late the effect of either influence. For that reason it is best
to consider first the character of the development of mental
traits which are, perhaps, likely to be affected least by spe-

36 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

cial training. For this purpose we may consider the results
of Gilbert's measurement of children of different ages with
respect to their capacity to discriminate differences in weight
and their capacity to react to a given sensory stimulus.

TABLE XIX. NUMBER OF GRAMS DIFFERENCE REQUIRED IN ORDER
THAT THE MEDIAN CHILD SHOULD BE ABLE TO PERCEIVE THE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WEIGHTS. DECREASE IN THE AMOUNTS
OF DIFFERENCE NECESSARY DENOTES INCREASE IN ABILITY.*

Age in years

Grams: Boys

13.0

13.2

12.2

10.2

8.6

10.2

7.6

6.0

5.2

6.2

6.0

Girls

16.8

13.2

11.0

10.0

9.2

7.6

5.6

7.2

6.8

(i.4

Both

14.8

13.6

11.4

10.0

8.8

8.6

7.2

5.4

5.6

6.8

6.6

5.8

TABLE XX. NUMBER OF THOUSANDTHS OF A SECOND BETWEEN
THE MOVEMENT OF A DISK AND THE MAKING OF A CONTACT BY A
CHILD WHO WAS INSTRUCTED TO PRESS DOWN A KEY AS SOON AS
HE -SAW THE DlSK MOVE: MEDIAN TlME. DECREASE IN THE
RECORD INDICATES INCREASE IN ABILITY.*

Age in years

Time: Bovs

282

267

245

243

210

185

178

180

167

147

Girls

295

315

260

2.55

225

20«

198

205

187

189

172

103

Both

295

292

262

250

215

195

187

180

172

155

* Gilbert, J. A., Researches on the Mental and Physical Development of School Children,
Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, vol. n, pp. 40-100; reproduced by Thorn-
dike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. in, pp. 273-74. Those not familiar with the term
median may without serious error interpret it as a measure of the central tendency some-
what similar to the average.

The general tendency of the abilities measured to increase
with age is obvious. Apparently ability in speed of reaction
increases constantly from the age of six to the age of seven-
teen, and possibly later. Ability to discriminate differences

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL

in weight increases continuously until the age of thirteen
or fourteen, where the apparent limit of improvement with-
out special practice is approached. Again the reader should
be warned that the character of the data does not warrant
more than the most general conclusions and limits interpre-
tation except with regard to general tendencies — possibly
even there. The particular facts to be noted from such tables
are that, in so far as the data are reliable, they indicate that
the traits measured tend to increase with age as the result
of inner growth and a certain amount of training, and that
differences in the rate of development and in the duration of
the process of development vary with different mental traits
until the limits of capacity are approached.

More complex and more susceptible to the influences of
practice and training are the mental traits involved in asso-
ciation and substitution. The results of certain investiga-
tions designed to measure abilities in those traits are pre-
sented in the following table:

TABLE XXI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAPACITY IN ASSOCIATION
AND SUBSTITUTION (PYLE)*

Age in years

lit

a. Part-whole association:

5.5

4.6

4.6
5.5

9.0
8.0

10.3
13.0

10.0
10.9

6.5
5.9

5.7
5.4

8.4
7.6

12.6
15.7

13.2
16.0

7.3
7.8

6.5

7.8

7.5
10.9

15.4
18.8

16.5
19.9

8.9
10.0

7.2
8.2

10.9
11.2

16.3
18.5

17.7
19.6

8.9
10.0

7.1
9.3

11.5
13.9

19.1

22.7

19.3
23.1

11.1
10.8

10.0
9.5

14.5
14.9

22.6
23.4

20.7
25.6

12.2
12.5

10.5
11.8

14.5
17.4

21.1
26.8

23.3
27.4

14.8
14.0

11.1
14.0

16.0
17.3

24.7
26.8

25.8

29.7

15.9
16.9

15.2
16.4

18.6
19.3

24.8
27.5

27.8
29.1

15.8
16.2

14.0
16.0

17.6
21.4

23.8
28.5

26.1
32.0

19.3
19.7

17.3
18.3

22.4
23.4

28.7
25.9

28.0
33.1

6. Genus-species association:

record ( Girls

c. Opposites association:

d. Digit-symbol substitution:

e. Symbol-digit substitution:

record \ Girls

* The figures in this table represent the results of Pyle's investigations. For conven-
ience the figures were taken from Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and Physical Tests,
part ii, pp. 75, 78, 82, 139, 140.

38 PRINCIPLES OP SECONDARY EDUCATION

In this table it is to be noted that here again we find
development of the various mental traits with age and differ-
ences in the rates of development as well as in the dates
when the limits of improvement begin to be approached.
It is, of course, obvious that practice and training exert
great influence on such traits as are involved in the processes
of association.

Measurement of the development of various memories
with age indicate much the same general tendencies as those
suggested by the measurements of various forms of associa-
tion and substitution. This appears from figures which
represent the results of a number of investigations.

TABLE XXII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS MEMORIES
WITH AGE*

Age in years ,

a. Memory span for Digits: t
6. Memory concrete words :J
Average ( Boys

6.6

31.2
32.9

22.9
20.5

ISO

6.7

32.4
32.7

26.3
24.0

140

6.8

35.8
39.6

26.8
31.0

150

7.2

37.7
37.7

31.7
31.8

150

7.4

37.7
38.7

31.0
34.0

164

7.3

38.3
40.4

32.4
36.0

Ifi •>

7.3

40.0
44.2

37.3
39.0

16Q

7.7

40.2
42.0

34.1
37.8

160

8.0

43.4
42.5

40.0
41.0

170

8.0

45.7
40.5

41.1
37.0

8.0

49.0
52.0

40.8
49.0

c. Memory abstract words: **

record ( Girls

d. Memory related words :tt

record | Girls
e. Memory unrelated words: it
Average ( Boys

13.0

11.1
11 5

14.0

12.2
1? 4

15.3

12.2
144

16.5

12.5

14 :!

16.0

12.8
14.0

17.0

13.5
IS 5

17.5

13.7
14 0

17.5

13.7
14 0

17.8

14.0
14.5

/. Memory ideas :§
Average ( Boys

24.3
28.5

28.7

si.q

30.0
33.5

32.9
36.4

35.1
38.1

36.8
38.5

36.1
39.0

36.5
39.1

34.4
37.3

34.6
36.6

36.9
37.8

Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and

Physical Tests, part n, who reproduced them from works and reports
cited. For the original data see the references given by Whipple, op. tit.

** Ibid., p. 174.

* The figures in this table were taken from Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and
ysical Tests, part n, who reproduced them from works and reports of the investigators

t Whipple, op. tit., p. 172.
tt Ibid., p. 188.

I Ibid., p. 173.
tt Ibid., p. 188.

§ Ibid., p. 211.

These figures indicate a general growth of memories with
age in most instances continuing through the period of school
life. Summarizing the matter considered in this section we

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 39

are probably safe in holding (1) that in general mental traits
improve in efficiency, throughout the period of elementary
and secondary education; (2) that the rate of improvement
with age varies for the different mental traits; (3) that the
limits of improvement vary; (4) that there is no evidence
that any given status once attained is diminished, except
in so far as being in part due to practice and training, deteri-
oration may take place because of the discontinuance of
practice or a change in training.

II. THE ORDER OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL
TRAITS

n. Theories of the development of mental traits. Serious
consequences for secondary education depend on the theory
which is followed concerning the order of the development
of various mental traits. Two conflicting theories are found.
One theory postulates that certain mental processes, e.g.,
memory, begin their development earlier, develop more
rapidly, and approach their maximal development earlier
than other mental traits, e.g., reasoning; sometimes further
assuming that once the maximum stage of development is
reached a period of deterioration sets in. As a consequence
it is sometimes maintained that emphasis should be placed
on special mental processes at particular ages or stages of
development, e.g., that sense perception and sensory di&'
crimination should be emphasized in the education of young
children, that education before the age of twelve should em-
phasize memory and drill, and that reasoning should be re-
served for emphasis at adolescence in the secondary school.
For convenience we may term this a Theory of Serial or
Periodic Development. The second theory assumes that, ex-
cept as affected by exercise and training (factors which may
be controlled extensively), the fundamental mental processes

40 PRINCIPLES OP SECONDARY EDUCATION

develop gradually, continuously, and in a relative degree
concomitantly, if not from birth, certainly from the begin-
ning of education in the school, until their maxima are
approached; and, further, that deterioration does not nec-
essarily set in until an age much later than the limit of
school life. Consequently on the basis of this theory it is
maintained that there are no periods in school education
when training in certain mental processes should be em-
phasized to the minimizing or neglect of others. For con-
venience this may be called a Theory of Concomitant De-
velopment.

A diagrammatic presentation may illustrate more clearly
the difference between the two theories:

Earlier age Later age
Theory of *| f Trait A

Serial or I I Trait B

Periodic

Development J [ Trait C

Theory of 1 f Trait A

Concomitant \ \ Trait B

Development J (.Trait C

For examples, sensory discrimination may be represented
by Trait A, certain forms of memory by Trait B, and certain
forms of reasoning by Trait C.

12. The theory of serial development. From the begin-
ning of formal education the theory has always been promi-
nent that certain ages were especially appropriate for the
training and utilization of different mental processes, on
the basis of the supposed superiority of those mental traits
at different periods. Likewise it has been supposed that
training hi and use of certain mental processes should be
deferred until the periods when their delayed operation

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 41

should begin. Typical of such a theory from one point of
view was that of Rosenkrantz who

divides the life of the child into an intuitive, an imaginative, and
a logical epoch. During the first of these periods the appeal should
be to the senses. Later imagination and memory are called into
play, and the entire movement should culminate in stirring up the
logical processes.1

A demarcation somewhat similar^ though by no means so
rigid, is made by Bagley:

The factor that operates most effectively hi the transition period
(ages six to eight) is vivid portrayal dealing almost exclusively with
concrete experiences. Repetition is frequently in order, provided
that it involves a minimum of strain and fatigue. Logical reasoning
is entirely out of place, and symbols must not be used apart from
a direct connection with the concrete experiences for which they
stand. ... In the formative period (ages eight to twelve), repeti-
tion is the watchword, but it should be strongly supplemented by
vivid portrayal and, in the later stages, by the simpler operations
of logical reasoning. Symbols should still be closely associated with
the concrete, but there is some place for the operation of verbal
memory through repetition, even if the underlying conceptions
have not been thoroughly traced out. . . . Organization of logical
reasoning holds undisputed sway ha the adolescent stage (ages
twelve to eighteen). . . . Moral culture is now entirely of the
rational type.2

The basis of this theory would appear to be found in the
relation which exists between the different mental processes
and the order of their operation with reference to any given
material. If we consider the mental processes in the order
of the simplest and most fundamental to the most complex,
e.g., sensation, perception, imagery, association and disso-

1 Henderson, E. N., Textbook in the Principles of Education, p. 171.
Quoted with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company.

2 Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, pp. 201-202 et antea. Quoted
with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company.

42 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

elation, memory, reasoning, combinations of processes, it is
recognized that the efficient operation of the latter must be
conditioned by the operation of the former processes on
which they depend. Association cannot take place without
perception and imagery; memory depends on association;
reasoning depends on association and dissociation ; ordinary
learning processes depend on a combination of all mental
processes. In a sense, therefore, the operation of the more
complex mental processes must follow the operation of the
more simple processes. This is true, however, with respect
to the application of those processes to specific material and
specific situations only; it cannot be considered to mean that
complex mental processes applied to materials of every sort
and to every situation must wait on the perfection of the
operation of the simpler processes as applied to all materials
and to all situations, or to mean that the simpler processes
can be perfected " in general." Such an assumption as that
commonly made involves a theory of general faculties which
is quite contrary to modern psychology. The point is well
taken by Henderson in commenting on the theory of Rosen-
krantz :

It involves the assumption that the faculties are distinct, and
that they develop independently. The child, it is assumed, first
observes without remembering or imagining to any great extent.
He thus develops a power of observation that may be used in any
field without reference to subject-matter. Later other powers
appear, and as soon as one emerges a new form of instruction be-
comes possible. It is absurd to reason with a child who has not yet
attained to the logical period, or to expect him to remember and
imagine while he is still in the intuitive stage. Moreover, when
once children have reached the rational age, it is supposed that they
will be logical on any subject. All these assumptions are faulty.
As a matter of fact, a child is usually in the intuitive epoch in
respect to some subjects and in the logical as regards others. The
analysis of the mental processes does not, as we now realize, mean
the discovery of independent faculties, but rather the revelation

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 43

of the forms through which any given content must pass as the
mind reflects upon it and utilizes it in new conditions. As a guide
10 the method by which new material must be presented, the idea
of a psychological order of development is of great value. But as a
clue to the way in which a subject must be taught to a child of a
certain age, no matter what his previous experience with that
material may have been, it is, to say the least, to be used with
caution. Common sense, indeed, tells us that we cannot expect
from young children certain complicated pieces of reasoning, based
on comprehensive experience and a large number of well-mastered
concepts. Nevertheless, it is astonishing what seemingly impossible
feats such children will perform, provided the ground is properly
prepared. Mathematical analysis impossible to untrained though
intelligent adults can be carried on by children in the primary
grades.1

13. The theory of concomitant development. Opposed to
the theory of serial or periodic development is the theory of
concomitant development of mental processes. This theory
postulates that with respect to the fundamental psychologi-
cal processes 2 the mode of their operation is the same from
birth to death, that their relative efficiency at any given
period is determined by the amount of their exercise and the
character of the materials on which they are exercised, and
that development of mental traits is to be measured not
with reference to general faculties but with reference to
specific material. The theory may be illustrated in the views
of representative psychologists and educators. Dewey's
view may be seen from the following quotations :

The method that emphasizes the psychological and natural, but
yet fails to see what an important part of the natural tendencies is
constituted at every period by growth of curiosity, inference, and
the desire to test, cannot secure a natural development. In natural
growth each successive stage of activity prepares unconsciously,

1 Henderson, E. N., Textbook in the Principles of Education, pp. 171-72.
Quoted with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company.
8 For the time being excluding instincts, interests, etc.

44 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

but thoroughly, the conditions for the manifestation of the next
stage — as in the cycle of a plant's growth. There is no ground
for assuming that "thinking" is a special, isolated natural tendency
that will bloom inevitably in due season simply because various
sense and motor activities have been freely manifested before; or
because observation, memory, imagination, and manual skill have
been previously exercised without thought. Only when thinking
is constantly employed in using the senses and muscles for the
guidance and application of observations and movements, is the
way prepared for subsequent higher types of thinking.

At present the notion is current that childhood is almost entirely
unreflective — a period of mere sensory, motor, and memory
development, while adolescence suddenly brings the manifesta-
tions of thought and reason.

Adolescence is not, however, a synonym for magic. Doubtless
youth should bring with it an enlargement of the horizon of child-
hood, a susceptibility to larger concerns and issues, a more generous
and a more general standpoint toward nature and social life. This
development affords an opportunity for thinking of a more compre-
hensive and abstract type than has previously obtained. But think-
ing itself remains just what it has been all the time: a matter of
following up and testing conclusions suggested by the facts and
events of life. Thinking begins as soon as the baby who has lost
the ball that he is playing with begins to foresee the possibility of
something not yet existing — its recovery ; and begins to forecast
steps toward the realization of this possibility, and, by experimen-
tation, to guide his acts by his ideas and thereby also to test the
ideas. Only by making the most of the thought factor, already
active in the experience of childhood, is there any promise or war-
rant for the emergence of superior reflective power at adolescence,
or at any later period.1

I have come to believe that reasoning itself, the capacity or
ability to reason (or that bundle of minor abilities of which reason-
ing consists), is not capable of being improved with growing years,
or, at least, its improvement is not sufficiently marked to be worth
mentioning. Professor James in his Psychology speaks in this way
about organic memory — "the power to retain." Later investiga-
tions have led to some modifications of his statement, but it is

1 Dewey, J., How We Think, pp. 65-66. Quoted with the permission of
the publishers, D. C. Heath & Co.

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 45

generally admitted that the power to improve radical or funda-
mental memory is slight.1

There are different objects to think about, and different purposes
for which to think, because children and grown-ups have different
kinds of acts to perform — different lines of occupation, hi short.
The adult has obviously more complicated activities to carry on;
he has concerns that continue over longer stretches of time so that
more details enter in, and results are postponed. Hence he must
constantly look ahead. The process of thinking is essentially the
same for little children; but there is such a difference in the materi-
als with which the thinking is done, and the ends for the sake of
which it is carried on, that the impression is easily created that the
thinking itself is of a radically different order.2

Much the same general viewpoint is that of Thorndike:

Now about these mental states (feelings of relationship, meaning,
judgments, the three sorts of mental stuff that play the great roles
in rational thinking) in children we may say that by the school
age, and in fact long before then, they are all present. The six-
year-old has all the elementary feelings involved in reasoning. The
change which occurs is not the appearance of these feelings, but
their increase in number and definiteness and a change in the
manner of their use. The constant increase in general experience
of things, and more particularly in increase in definite study of
things due to educational influences, forces children to know more
relationships between things just as it does to know more things.
More and more minute and more comprehensive relationships are
grasped. We have thus all stages, from the baby who feels that his
father is not like his mother, that two pieces of candy are more than
one, to the scientist who notes the similarity between man and the
older monkeys or relates the phenomena of gravitation to elec-
trical charges of ions.3

. . . From these facts it is clear that, as regards the mechanics
of the reasoning process, children differ from adults only as adults
differ among themselves. Not some mysterious inner transforma-

1 Dewey, J., "Reasoning in Early Childhood," Teachers College Record,
vol. xv, no. 1, p. 9.

2 Ibid., p. 10.

s Thorndike, E. L., Notes on Child Study (2d edition), pp. 92-93.

46 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

tion, but the enlargement and refinement of experience, the forma-
tion of systems and suitable ideas, the knowledge of aspects or ele-
ments of things essential to different purposes, the acquisition and
habitual use of systematic methods of forming and testing con-
clusions, the growth of skepticism concerning the similarity of
things alike in some respects, the definition of terms and the crystal-
lization of experiences into judgments, are what make the rational
man out of the blundering child.1

From these typical views it is clear that the theory in-
volved concerning the fundamental mental processes is one
which assumes that the development of efficiency is more
dependent on growth as affected by experience and training
than on a serial development of capacities determined by
the forces of inner growth, and that all the mental processes
are so interrelated and interdependent that serial or periodic
development is out of the question.

14. An evaluation of the theories of development. The
burden of evidence would appear to be in favor of the theory
of interdependent or concomitant development, especially
with reference to ordinary mental processes fundamental
to learning. Evidence from theoretic psychology, from ex-
perimental measurement, and from empirical knowledge
gained through ordinary experience inside and outside the
school, all point toward the same conclusion — that the fun-
damental mental processes begin with the early years and
continue throughout life without change as far as the mode
of their operation is concerned. Development is predomi-
nantly a matter of the accumulation of experiences which
affect all the fundamental processes. The laws of mental
life point unmistakably to an interdependence of the mental
processes which precludes any conception of a development
of any fundamental process without a possible, commonly
a necessary, corresponding modification of those by which

1 Thorndike, E. L., Notes on Child Study (2d edition), p. 97.

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 47

its development is conditioned and those whose develop-
ment is conditioned by it. The stimulus of life's activities,
including those of formal education, alone determine whether
or not any given mental process shall be exercised and that
stimulus affects all mental processes at all ages.

If we turn from the general laws of psychology to the re-
sults of experimental investigation of the mental processes
employed by children of different ages the evidence points
in the same direction. Such measurements as those con-
sidered in Tables XIX to XXII indicate that the processes
or traits considered were to be found in some degree La
children of all ages within the period of school life. This is
clearly shown also by the Courtis Tests and by Bonser's
studies.1 It is also true of more general mental operations:

The ideas of the child are largely new, while those of the adult
are oftener old or connected with old ideas; hence the adult's
mental grasp is greater chiefly because of knowledge and experi-
ence. The effect of knowledge on mental grasp is well shown by
a series of experiments in which first-grade children and adults
reproduce ordinary letters, Greek letters, and familiar sentences.
The adults have little advantage in the case of Greek letters, a
great deal in ordinary letters, and are almost infinitely better in
reproducing the letters making a sentence. Evidently the differ-
ence is due to greater familiarity and increased mental grasp.2

If the evidence from the general laws of mental life and
the evidence from experimental investigation were wanting,
ordinary empirical evidence should be sufficient to guard us
against the assumption that young children remember bet-
ter than older children or that the processes of reasoning do
not afford educational opportunity to any considerable ex-
tent until the dawn of adolescence. All forms of the mental

1 Bonser, F. G., The Reasoning Abilities of Children of the Fourth, Fifth
and Sixth School Grades.

2 Kirkpatrick, E. A., Fundamentals of Child Study, p. 255. Quoted with
the permission of the publishers, The Maciiiillan Company.

4U PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

processes are found in the activities of children throughout
the school period. Nor is it true that during the early pe-
riods concrete experience alone forms the stuff of mental life
and that symbolic and abstract materials are either the sole
materials appropriate to later school life or confined to the
later periods. Symbolic imagery of the most common type,
i.e., letters, words, arithmetical symbols, etc., are employed
almost at the very beginning of the child's school life and
play a most prominent part throughout. Abstract thinking
of a high order may be found in operation in any grade of
the school. The extent to which one may rely in teaching on
the more complex mental processes is determined by the
amount of previous experience rather than by the chrono-
logical age reached by the pupils.

There is a dangerous tendency manifest in some quarters
to assume that a close analogy is warranted between the fun-
damental mental processes and instincts and to base a theory
of deferred development and transitory quality for the com-
mon mental processes on the assumption of such character-
istics for instincts. While the majority of instincts, e.g.,
fear, curiosity, imitation, etc., are manifest in children from
birth, certain other instincts, e.g., the sex instincts, are con-
ceived to be delayed until about the stage of puberty. Like-
wise j.t is commonly held that certain instincts, e.g., the
" collecting instinct," tend to be transitory, manifesting a
period of waxing, a period of ascendency, and a period of
waning. Whether or not such characteristics are of frequent
occurrence with reference to instincts, there is little ground
for assuming like phenomena to be characteristic of the
fundamental mental processes of sense-perception, memory,
reasoning, and the like.

If this is the case with James's temperate account, what shall
we say of those who describe the inner growth of man's instincts
and capacities altogether as a series of tendencies, appearing, wait-

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 49

ing, lasting a brief space and vanishing unless then and there fixed
as habits — like the ripening of fruits which soon decay unless pre-
served by the housewivery of habits, or like a procession of candi-
dates which pass through an office, disappearing for good and all
unless enlisted at the time and drilled by some recruiting officer
of the mind. Such a sharp definition of the rise and fall of original
tendencies in a serial order of stages or epochs seems to me to be a
gross exaggeration, corresponding only here and there to the actual
progress of inner development.1

It is doubtful, indeed, that delay in appearance or tran-
sitoriness is a law of any extensive application with refer-
ence to instincts (though perhaps quite the reverse is true
with respect to specific manifestations in the form of special
interests which are highly susceptible to the influence of
the environment and special training) . With respect to the
fundamental mental processes evidence is wanting that it
can apply at all.

15. Implications for secondary education. Almost every
phase of the work of the secondary school is affected to a
greater or less extent by the theory accepted concerning the
order and rate of mental development. Certain implications
may be briefly considered here.

(1) Affecting organization and administration: The articu-
lation between elementary education and secondary educa-
tion has frequently been based in part on the theory that
the mental development of children is serial and periodic
and that important differences between children of earlier
and later ages justify a rather sharp distinction between
elementary and secondary education. This theory is always
more or less associated with certain theories of adolescence
in relation to secondary education which will be considered
at greater length in following sections. In anticipation, how-

1 Thorndike, E. L., The Original Nature of Man, pp. 266-67. Quoted
with the permission of the publishers, Teachers College Bureau of Publica-
tions.

50 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ever, two quotations may be given to illustrate the general
attitude. Thus Bagley:

From these facts (those of mental changes at adolescence), it
follows that the methods of moral culture must be transformed
almost in a day. Just as in mental training "the drill and mechan-
ism of the previous period must be relaxed," so, in moral training,
the arbitrary and authoritative rulings that have hitherto been the
mainstay must now give place to reason.1

In a similar vein writes Davis:

American educational work wrongly organized. — Again the pres-
ent mode of organizing and administering educational work in
America is psychologically ill-grounded. The adolescent period
usually begins at about the age of twelve years. With the dawn of
this new period come most notable changes in physical form,
structure, and function and most decided concomitant psycho-
logical changes. At this period self-consciousness is born. The
interests that formerly held dominant sway are cast aside. New
motives stir, new aspirations fire, new goals beckon. Conscious
logical reason begins to proclaim itself. The mind is no longer satisfied
with mere empirical facts, but it demands that the facts be presented in
their essential relations. . , . To enforce unnatural restraints upon
an adolescent is to deaden his sensibilities, stifle his intellectual and
his social enthusiasm, and atrophy his powers. To keep him under
the restrictive and arbitrary discipline of the ordinary elementary
school is to sin against nature and to commit an offence against
the laws of social well-being. To employ with him the methods of
instruction and training of the elementary school is to provoke
him to truancy, encourage him to evade school work, and impel
him to forsake school duties altogether. The. beginning of adoles-
cence is most emphatically the beginning of the period of secondary
education. As our schools are organized and administered to-day
this fact is ignored.2

1 Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, p. 200. Italics by the present
writer. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan
Company.

2 Davis, C. O., Principles and Plans for Reorganizing Secondary Educa-
tion, pp. 69-70 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School Education. Italics
by the present writer. Quoted with the permission of the publishers,
Charles Scribner's Sons.

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 51

Underlying such statements as those cited is a theory that
elementary and secondary education can be distinguished on
the basis of the " mental stages " of the children as deter-
mined by the inner growth of certain mental traits, with
particular reference to a sudden burst of the capacity to rea-
son with an assumed sudden onset of adolescence. In con-
trast with such a theory the theory of concomitant develop-
ment of mental traits would justify no such sharp division
between elementary and secondary education, but, on the
contrary, emphasizes the importance of recognizing that
there can be no sharp dividing line between the two and
demands that the transition from elementary education to
secondary education be gradual and continuous.

(2} Affecting subject-matter: A theory of the serial and
periodic development of mental traits has frequently been
made the basis of the assignment of various subjects of
study to different parts of the school course, assigning to the
earlier years subjects of study which are conceived to de-
pend for their mastery on more or less mechanical processes,
especially motor ability and memory, and assigning to the
later years those subjects of study which are conceived to
demand reasoning ability. Thus it is frequently argued that
subjects of study requiring motor skill are best acquired by
children in the elementary school or in the early grades of
the secondary school. Likewise it is argued that the study
of foreign languages should be begun at about the age of
twelve because of the demand which it makes on memory.
So, also, it is claimed that subjects calling for aesthetic ap-
preciation such as literature, and subjects calling for logical
reasoning should be deferred and offered relatively late in
the school course. Whatever other reasons may justify the
location of subjects in various grades of the school, little jus-
tification can be found for such arguments as may depend
for their validity on an assumption that special mental pro'

52 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

cesses are especially favorable at certain ages. Far more satis-
factory is the theory that social economy and the character
of specific training already given and acquired should be
the criteria determining the values and positions of subjects
of study in the school. As a matter of fact a subject of study
which made no demand ori perception, conception, imagery,
memory, reasoning (if such should be conceived as a reality)
could not be considered appropriate for education, and fail-
ure to employ any of those processes in earlier education
would probably be the best guarantee that that process
would not be efficient at a later stage.

(3) Affecting methods of teaching: Obviously the theory
adopted with respect to the development of mental traits
vitally concerns the methods to be employed in teaching any
subject. According to the theory of serial or periodic de-
velopment emphasis on the concrete or abstract, on memory
or reasoning, is to be determined by the age of the pupil and
without reference to the stage of his development with re-
spect to the specific materials concerned. At a certain age
teaching methods are to rely primarily on memory and to
minimize dependence on reasoning. In the succeeding stage
the process is to be reversed and inner growth alone is sup-
posed to make possible extensive reliance on the pupil's
ability to reason. The conception has vicious results, not
only in that it assumes the possibility of the sudden aban-
donment of habits of memorizing which have been fostered
carefully in the earlier stage, and assumes the ready develop-
ment of habits and ideals of reasoning, but also because it
leads to an overemphasis on memorization in the earlier
stages and a failure to give needed practice to reasoning with-
out which it is impossible to find it effective at later stages.
Only when proper exercise is given to the reasoning processes
in connection with the simpler experiences of the earlier
stages is there any warrant for expecting their effective oper-

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 55

ation with the more complex experiences of the later period.
In this connection it may be noted that when reasoning is
neglected in the elementary school and emphasized in the
high school the rather rapid development of capacity previ-
ously discouraged may give the appearance of a sudden inner
growth which is, however, but the natural expansion of a
capacity previously neglected.

As opposed to this theory, the theory of continuous and
concomitant development demands that each mental trait
receive due attention throughout the school course and that
methods of teaching be adapted to utilize all the fundamental
mental traits from the beginning. Obviously maturity here
as elsewhere must be an important factor, but maturity
should not be measured on the basis of a series of delayed
developments of the different mental traits.

(4) Affecting discipline and treatment of the pupil: Ac-
cording to the theory of serial or periodic development the
treatment of pupils would be determined largely by the
factor of age, postulating rather mechanical, submissive
action by the pupils during the earlier stages and deferring
appeals to reason until the later stages. According to the
theory of continuous and concomitant development appeals
to the reason of pupils are as appropriate at one age as at
another, provided they are adapted to the specific stages of
development and provided they are expressed in terms or
actions which the pupils' previous experiences can interpret.
In any event the transition from the rule of rules to the rule
of reason must be gradual.

III. THEORIES OF THE INFLUENCE OF ADOLESCENCE ON
DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL TRAITS

16. Theories of the influence of adolescence. Closely
related to the problem considered above is the problem of

54 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

the influence of adolescence on the development of mental
traits and its bearing on secondary education. In its most
general form the problem may be stated as follows: Is the
course of the development of mental traits such that there
are periods of relatively rapid and relatively slow growth, or,
is the process of development essentially continuous and
gradual? In more special form as having direct bearing on
secondary education the problem may be stated thus : Is the
onset of puberty (the initial stage of adolescence) relatively
sudden and abrupt, does its abrupt appearance entail sud-
den marked changes in general physical development, and
do abrupt and sudden changes in mental traits coincide with
such physical changes, or, are all the mental phenomena
which are supposed to accompany adolescence characterized
by gradual maturing ? Two theories are found in psycho-
logical and educational theory. One theory assumes that the
development of mental traits at adolescence is relatively
rapid and is characterized by sudden and relatively abrupt
changes. It is commonly termed the Theory of Saltatory
Development (Latin saltare = to leap, to proceed by leaps).
The other theory assumes that development is essentially
continuous and gradual, such fluctuations as occur merely
representing the usual phenomena of a variable factor. This
may be called the Theory of Gradual Development. The two
theories may be roughly contrasted by diagrams. (Figure A.)
17. The theory of saltatory development. The phenomena
of puberty and adolescence have always been fraught with
interest to students of education and particularly to students
of secondary education. This interest always present has
been stimulated to a high degree by the results of the child
study movement of the past quarter century and especially
by the publication of Hall 's monumental work on Ado-
lescence in 1904. Subsequent to the publication of that book
few treatments of adolescence, or of the development of

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL

Theory of

Saltatory

Development

Ago 0

Theory of

Gradual

Development

Age 0

physical and mental traits with age, have been unaffected by
the data which Hall presented and the theories which he set
forth. Prominent among those theories was the theory of
the saltatory development of mental traits at adolescence,
and most treatments of that topic have been more or less
colored by the tenets of Hall and his school.

Representative opinions will illustrate the form which the
theory of saltatory development takes among its advocates.
Burnham states it thus:

Physiological changes: Everybody is familiar with the more ob-
vious changes that occur at this period. The reproductive organs
increase in size, the larynx enlarges, the vocal cords become elon-
gated, the volume of the heart is increased. . . . Probably equally
important changes occur in the brain; for the shape of the head
changes, .and new intellectual and emotional activities of this
period must be accompanied by the functioning of the cerebral
centres that have lain dormant before. This is, moreover, a period
of specially rapid growth in both sexes.

56 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Psychological changes. The psychological changes at puberty are
no less remarkable. There is a great influx of new sensations. The
brain, aroused by these new stimuli, increases its activity. The
psychic concomitant of this increased cerebral activity is mani-
fested in a variety of ways. The adolescent mind is filled with
hopes, dreams, tempestuous passions, and new ideas. Social and
ethical impulses become dominant; egoism often gives place to
altruism. Political or religious zeal sometimes become the main-
spring of action. The reasoning powers come into use.1

Hall's theory of the development of physical and mental
traits with adolescence is not so readily gained through a
single quotation or a few quotations, as from the general
tenor of his work. A few characteristic passages, however,
will illustrate his theory:

Adolescence is a new birth, for the higher and more completely
human traits are now born. The qualities of body and soul that
now emerge are far newer. The child comes from and harks "back
to a remoter past; the adolescent is neo-atavistic, and in him the
later acquisitions of the race slowly become prepotent. Develop-
ment is less gradual and more saltatory, suggestive of some ancient
period of storm and stress when old moorings were broken and a
higher level attained. The annual rate of growth in height, weight,
and strength is increased and often doubled, and even more. Im-
portant functions previously non-existent arise. Growth of parts
and organs loses its former proportions, some permanently and
some for a season. Some of these are still growing in old age and
others are soon arrested and atrophy. The old moduli of dimen-
sions become obsolete and old harmonies are broken. The range
of individual differences and average errors in all physical measure-
ments and all psychic tests increases. Some linger long in the
childish stage and advance late or slowly, while others push on
with a sudden outburst of impulsion to early maturity.2

1 Burnham, W. H., "The Study of Adolescence," Pedagogical Seminary,
vol. i (1891), pp. 175-76.

2 Hall, G. S., Adolescence, vol. i, p. xiii. Hall's statement that, the range
of individual differences in all physical measurements and psychic tests in-
creases is open to contradiction. Cf. Terman, L. M., The Measurement
of Intelligence, p. 67.

In adolescence, individualism is suddenly augmented and begins
to sense its limits and its gradual subordination to the race which
the Fates prescribe.1

At adolescence each of the senses undergoes certain character-
istic changes of structure, function, or both. Interests change and
with them the organs of apperception, so that aspects and elements
different from those hitherto absorbing the complex but already
familiar objects of sense become foci of attention. . . . One of the
most important and comprehensive modifications is, that whereas
most sense stimuli before this age tend strongly to provoke reflex
reactions, after it these tend to be delayed or better organized,
as if there were a marked increase of associative or central func-
tions. Before, the projection system predominated, and stimuli,
suggestion, and afferent processes generally passed more readily
over to the efferent or motor tracts; but now we have increased
cerebral irradiations, and there is a marked advance in the develop-
ment of the long-circuiting functions of thought, deliberation, and
reflection.2

Of all the changes normal at adolescence, none are more com-
prehensive and perhaps none are now more typical of the psychic
transformation of this age than those that occur in the attitude
toward the various aspects of nature. . . . The new life is first born
in the heart, and is more or less unconscious, and among its first
spontaneous creations are metaphors that may fade and be often
recreated, so that language itself becomes fossil poetry. Allegory
gives things a dual meaning; symbolism is now first possible, and
a widening circle of objects and events acquire a new purport.3

At the dawn of adolescence this impulse to migrate or wander
shows a great and sudden increase.4

But with the teens all this begins to be changed and many of
these precepts (for previous education) must be gradually reversed.
There is an outburst of growth that needs a large part of the total
kinetic energy of the -body. . . . The mind at times grows in leaps
and bounds in a way that seems to defy the great enemy, fatigue,
and yet when the teacher grows a little tiresome the pupil is tired
in a moment.5

1 Hall, G. S., Adolescence, vol. n, p. 58. Quotations from Adolescence
with the permission of the publishers, D. Appleton & Co.

2 Ibid., vol. ii, p. 2. 3 Ibid., vol. n, pp. 144-45.
4 Ibid., vol. 11, p. 377. 6 Ibid., vol. n, pp. 453-54.

58 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Whether or not unqualified advocacy of the theory of
saltatory development can be ascribed to Hall, certain it is
that many educators and psychologists more or less in-
fluenced by his work have adopted that theory without
appreciable qualification. On no other theory could be justi-
fied such extravagant expressions as the following: " At this
period self-consciousness is born. The interests that for-
merly held dominant sway are cast aside. New motives stir,
new aspirations fire, new goals beckon. Conscious logical
reason begins to proclaim itself." 1 " Mentally, then, as
well as physically, adolescence is a new birth"; 2 etc.

18. The theory of gradual development. Opposed to the
theory of saltatory development is the theory of gradual
development which postulates that growth in the mental
traits is essentially gradual. Again the form which this theory
may be seen best from typical views. Thus Thorndike:

I conclude, therefore, that the development of mental traits with
age has not been and cannot be adequately measured by such
studies as those quoted (Gilbert). To measure it we must repeat
measurements upon the same individuals and for all purposes of
inference preserve intact each of the individual changes. In con-
nection with each of them account must be taken of the training
which the individual in question has undergone.

What measurements we do have may serve,- however, to correct
two errors of common opinion. The notion that the increases in
ability due to a given amount of progress toward maturity are
closely alike for all children, save the so-called "abnormally preco-
cious" or "retarded," is false. The same fraction of the total inner
development, from zero to adult ability, will produce very unequal
results in different children. Inner growth acts differently, accord-
ing to the original nature that is growing.

The notion that maturity is the main factor in the differences
found amongst school children, so that grading and methods of

1 Davis, C. O., p. 69, of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School Educa-
tion.

2 Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, p. 196.

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 59

teaching should be fitted closely to "stage of growth," is also false.
It is by no means very hard to find seven-year-olds who can do
intellectual work at which one in twenty seventeen-year-olds
would fail.1

Two general questions concerning the time-relations of original
tendencies may be discussed here because of their intrinsic impor-
tance and their service in predisposing the student to a critical atti-
tude in connection with the general literature of mental development
in childhood. These questions concern the suddenness of the wax-
ing of delayed tendencies and the frequency of transitory tendencies.

It is a favorite dictum of superficial psychology and pedagogy
that instincts lie entirely dormant and then spring into full strength
within a few weeks. At a certain stage, we are told, such and such
a tendency has its "nascent period" or ripening time. Three is the
age for fear, six is the age for climbing, fifteen is the age for coopera-
tiveness, and the like. The same doctrine is applied to the sup-
posed "faculties" or very general capacities of the mind. Within
a year or two around eight the child is said to change from a mere
bundle of sensory capacities, to a child possessed of imagination;
somewhere around thirteen another brief score of months brings
his reasoning up from near zero to nearly full energy; a year or two
somewhere in the teens creates altruism!

These statements are almost certainly misleading. The one in-
stinct whose appearance seems most like a dramatic rushing upon
life's stage — • the sex instinct — is found upon careful study to be
gradually maturing for years. The capacity for reasoning shows no
signs by any tests as yet given of developing twice as much in any
one year from five to twenty-five as in any other. In the cases
where the differences between children of different ages may be
taken roughly to measure the rate of inner growth of capacities,
what data we have show nothing to justify the doctrine of sudden
ripening in a serial order.2

The few interests whose strength, period by period, have been
more or less well measured, give no evidence of any sudden acces-

1 Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. m (1914), pp. 279-80.
Quoted with the permission of the publishers, Teachers College Bureau of
Publications.

2 Thorndike, E. L., The Original Nature of Man, pp. 260-61. Quoted
with the permission of the publishers, Teachers College Bureau of Publi-
cations.

60 PRINCIPLES OP SECONDARY EDUCATION

sion of power. Thus collecting seems to increase in vigor gradually
from before six to ten. The capacities of sensory discrimination,
memory, observation and the like which have been measured in
children at different ages, are of course in the conditions that they
are at any age because of training as well as inner growth, and the
facts concerning their rates of gain cannot be used at their face
value in our argument. But so far as they do go, they give no sup-
port to the theory of the sudden rise of inner tendencies. Indeed
every tendency that has been subjected to anything like rigid scru-
tiny seems to fit the word gradual rather than the word sudden in
the rate of its maturing.1

Briefly stated, Thorndike's theory may be considered
essentially this: that development must be considered
chiefly with reference to the individual and with less im-
portance attached to group averages; that development is a
matter of specific traits, not general " faculties "; that the
data accessible as regards both physical and mental develop-
ment are at present very inadequate; that, such as the evi-
dence is, it points toward continuous and gradual develop-
ment rather than toward sudden transitions. These views
essentially constitute the theory of gradual development.

The general theory of continuous and gradual develop-
ment is expressed by King as follows:

When any period of life is set off for special study there is dan-
ger of drawing a picture that is exaggerated and untrue to reality.
This is especially the case with both childhood and youth. In our
eagerness to state clearly the traits of the period with which we are
concerned, we tend to draw lines of definite separation between
what has come before and what comes after. This indeed has been
a vice of all those who take up any part of a series of changes for
particular study. . . .

In just this same way the so-called periods of life from birth to
maturity exist largely in the mind of the over-eager observer. The
more we know about human nature, the more we are convinced

1 Thorndike, E. L., The Original Nature of Man, pp. 262-63. Quoted
with the permission of the publishers, Teachers College Bureau of Publi-
cations.

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 61

that development is a continuous process. The child is, it is true,
different from the youth, and the youth from the man, but these
differences have come about through infinitely minute gradations
rather than by great leaps. Much has been made, for instance, of
the difference between the religion of the child and of the youth,
and yet everything to be found in the moral and religious point
of view of the youth had its beginnings and its incubation in child-
hood. There is no abrupt shift from one to the other. This does
not mean, of course, that no time of life has any striking or dis-
tinctive characteristics. We are striving rather to emphasize the
fact that what we always find, when we look carefully, is continuity
in development rather than abrupt transition.

Even on the physical side of child development, this is perfectly
true. The tune of rapid growth, at the period of puberty, does not
normally begin suddenly nor does it end all at once. Even though
the actual rise in the curves of height and weight occur with seem-
ing abruptness, the child has, in the years previous, been getting
ready for this accelerated development. . . .

The development of the sex instinct at puberty is no exception
to this rule. The manifestations of this impulse at that time are
usually so striking that psychologists have tended to point to it
as an instance of sudden transition. The little child has been as-
sumed to be sexless in all his interests. The meaning of sex sud-
denly, it has been held, dawns upon him at puberty. This view is
quite erroneous. The sex life of the child begins at birth. Gradually,
through the years of childhood, differentiation goes on, not merely
in the physical organism but also hi mental attitudes, interests, in
general points of view. One of the most important contributions of
the study of early and later childhood has been the discovery that
sex impulses and interests appear, normally, very early and develop
as an integral part of the childhood self. The period of puberty,
therefore, marks no abrupt transition; but is simply the time when
the long antecedent development emerges, occupies a larger place
in the child's horizon, and attracts the attention of the observer
so that he drops into the fallacy of imagining that something
entirely new has suddenly come into being.

Youth is a transition period, but no more so than is any season
of life, so long as life continues to be truly alive, for life is, in its
essence, change and progress for better or for worse.1

1 King, I., The High-School Age, pp. 66-71. Quoted with the permission
of the author and his publishers, Bobbs-Merrill Company.

62 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

The clarity of King's presentation leaves no opportunity
to escape the conclusion that his views involve the theory
of continuous and gradual development.

19. Evaluation of the two theories. In attempting to
evaluate the two theories of development above presented
it is necessary briefly to examine and interpret the data and
arguments on which the theories depend. When the theory
of saltatory development is thus examined it is found to rest
on the assumption of the saltatory development of physical
traits, an analogy between physical and mental traits, and
certain evidence which is supposed to support the theory
directly. Thus it is held that quantitative measurements of
certain parts and organs of the body indicate that at puberty
a rather sudden and abrupt change is found in the rates of
development. Growth in height and weight at adolescence
especially is instanced. Facts indicate the possibility of such
sudden accession of development in the case of some 'organs
and parts of the body, though the interpretation of certain
data is open to question because of their character, the
method of investigation or measurement, and the deductions
made. In the case of other parts and organs the available
data point toward quite a different condition, so that it is
clear that not all parts and organs manifest sudden matur-
ing at puberty and, therefore, that any statement of salta-
tory development in general is not justified and probably
not true. As has been suggested (e.g., in the quotation from
King above), some misconceptions are involved even in
interpreting measurements in growth and height, and even
in the case of the development of physiological traits char-
acteristic of puberty abrupt development is not to be
assumed as established. Unless more tangible connection
between the physiological organs directly indicative* of
puberty and other physical and physiological traits can be
shown, we should have little warrant in assuming radical

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 63

changes in those other traits to be determined by or to be
coincident with puberty, even if it could be shown that the
latter were abrupt and sudden in development. The burden
of proof is positive, not negative.

When the none too well established theory of saltatory
development of physical traits is made the basis of an anal-
ogy on which to build up a theory of saltatory develop-
ment of mental traits, a dangerous step is taken. Argument
by analogy is always treacherous and always requires cor-
roborative evidence. Certainly in the present case, if it is to
be employed at all, the analogy should be drawn to all organs
and parts of the body or to the body as a whole, rather than
to certain parts only, which themselves differ from other
parts in the nature of th^ir development. More appropriate
still would be an analogy to the physiological development
of the nervous system, especially to the development of the
higher centers in the brain. It is, however, just here that we
have the least reliable data. Such as the data are they are in
many respects unfavorable to a theory of saltatory develop-
ment. Certainly it is vicious to argue in a circle that ob-
served changes in physical development indicate changes in
mental traits, and then to argue that " the new intellectual
and emotional activities of this period must be accompanied
by the functioning of cerebral centers that have lain dor-
mant before."

Direct evidence of the development of mental traits with
age is of two sorts: (1) that obtained by careful quantitative
measurement, and (2) that obtained from psychological
introspection (analyzing one 's own mental processes) and
through the questionnaire method. Advocates of the theory
of saltatory development have depencled largely on the sec-
ond of the two sorts of data. The dangers of introspection
on the part of untrained persons are. readily recognized.
When the errors incident to its vise are combined with the

pitfalls of the questionnaire method such results as are
obtained cannot be regarded without suspicion and doubt.
Certainly an examination of some of the studies made in this
field and by those methods cannot fail to leave the critic

"';"* , ' " •

wholly skeptical of the greater part of such investigations
and unwilling to accept the conclusions reached.1

Arguments for the theory of gradual development rest
largely on the results of such quantitative measurements as
those referred to above. Advocates of the theory hold that
such data as we have, inadequate though they are for exact
analysis, are indicative of continuous and gradual develop-
ment in mental traits. This is shown in the tables presented
in the first sections of this chapter.

20. Implications for secondary 4education. The entire
a - ~~econojaiyvojF secondary education is seriously affected by the
problern invbfyed in the theories above outlined. Questions
of vital impei$ance in connection with the organization and
administration of the school, subjects of study, methods of
teaching, and the treatment of secondary school pupils de-
pend for then* solution on the adoption of either of the two
theories discussed.

(1) Organization and administration : When one examines
the literature of secondary education he finds it replete with
references to it as the institution for the education of adoles-
cent boys and girls, which is in general a fact not open to
question. Secondary education is indeed largely a matter of
the education of adolescents. When, however, it is main-
tained that the change from preadolescence to adolescence
is relatively sudden and abrupt, and hence that a relatively
radical differentiation should be made between elementary
education and secondary education, or that the organization
and administration of the school system should be based on

1 For criticism of this method of investigation see Thorndike, E. L., The
Original Nature of Man, pp. 27-42.

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 65

the assumption that homogeneity is characteristic of the
children before and after puberty, the grounds for such a
theory are by no means so well established. For many years
the assumption that relatively sudden and abrupt changes
take place in the individual at the age of approximately
fourteen years has been made the justification of our pres-
ent division between elementary and secondary education.
Thus Monroe:

It is now known that during the adolescent period the child
undergoes such a radical change, physically and psychically, that
education can find in these changes the sufficient basis for a differ-
entiation between the earlier and the secondary stages of educa-
tion. . . . Other reasons were more influential in setting the age
limits of the American secondary school, but the general recogni-
tion of the peculiar interests, abilities, and characteristics of the
adolescent age has had much to do with determining these limits.
While the democratic feature of elementary education is no doubt
the determining factor in fixing the beginning of the secondary
school period at about the fourteenth year, the recognition of the
importance of the adolescent period has grown in weight through-
out the history of the American high school.1

More recent studies of the phenomena of puberty and
adolescence have been interpreted to indicate that the adoles-
cent period usually begins at an earlier stage than at the age
of fourteen, probably nearer the age of twelve, and as a result
the assertion is sometimes made that on that basis second-
ary education should begin at about that age. Thus Davis:

Again, the present mode of organizing and administering edu-
cational work in America is ill grounded. The adolescent period
usually begins at about the age of twelve years. . . . The beginning
of adolescence is most emphatically the beginning of the period of
secondary education.2

1 Monroe, P., The Principles of Secondary Education, pp. 9-10. Quoted
with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company.

1 Davis, C. O., at page 69 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School
Education.

66 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

In complete form the argument may be stated thus : Ado-
lescence begins at the age of twelve (thirteen ? fourteen?) ;
marked, sudden and abrupt physical and psychical changes
take place in children at the onset of adolescence; the sepa-
ration between elementary education and secondary educa-
tion should be determined by this factor of adolescence. It
is obvious that the validity of the conclusion depends on the
validity of the premises. It is also obvious that the theory of
continuous and gradual development would lead to a far
different conclusion. The argument based on that theory
would run somewhat as follows: Development at puberty
and adolescence must be conceived essentially as unitary,
continuous, and gradual process, adolescence itself being but
a period of change extending over a f airly long period of time
and being but an integral part of a larger period of growth
without points of definite demarcation which sharply differ-
entiate it from earlier or later development. Consequently no
definite dates can be set for puberty and adolescence so that
any sharp separation of elementary and secondary education
is without justification.

The general principles affecting the validity of the prem-
ises of the two fundamental theories involved have been dis-
cussed above. There remain, however, at leakt two impor-
tant factors to be considered, especially as affecting the prac-
ticability of adapting the organization and administration
of the system of education to the implications of the theory
of saltatory development at adolescence. The first factor to
be considered involves the element of variability. In the
data which were presented regarding physical and mental
traits emphasis was centered on " averages," etc. It is al-
ways important, however, in dealing with groups of indi-*
viduals and in measuring traits which vary in amount
among those individuals, to take account of the amount of'
variability as well as the central tendency as measured by

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 67

the average, median, mode, etc. It is recognized that at all
times different amounts of a trait will be found for different
individuals. It is recognized that the time of the onset of
pubescence differs for boys and girls, that the time varies for
either sex, and that the duration of the process of change
varies. Since we are dealing with a variable quantity it is
important to know not only the central tendency of the age
at which adolescence begins (e.g., the average age for the
beginning of adolescence), but also the amount of the varia-
tion from that central tendency. If, for instance, the central
tendency of the age for the ending of prepubescence and the
beginning of pubescence in the case of boys is found to be
fourteen years, and the variation of individuals from that age
were such that the majority of boys began to be pubescent
within a few months of that age, a working scheme allowing
for the saltatory theory of adolescence would be possible.
If, on the other hand, the variation were such that a range
of a year or two or even more from the central tendency
would be found necessary in order to include even a majority
of boys, organization and administration on the basis of the
saltatory theory of development would be impracticable
unless we adopt in toto a scheme of promotion based solely
on physiological age as suggested by Crampton and Foster.
Fortunately we possess certain figures for variability which
may be considered at least as reliable as the figures for aver-
ages, etc. Thus, on the basis of his examination of high-
school boys of New York City, Crampton found that for the
ending of prepubescence and the beginning of pubescence
the middle of the mean years was fourteen years, the aver-
age age 13.44 years, with a variability of, more or less, 1.55
years, or more than a year and a half. This means that with
an average date marking the beginning of pubescence of
about thirteen and one half years, it required a range of
more than three years to include two thirds of the boys

68 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

measured. The importance of the factor of variability with
reference to puberty may be noted from the tables indicat-
ing the stages of puberty in high-school boys and in girls
(Tables XI and XIII). On the basis of those figures if we
should assume that all boys of the age of thirteen could be
grouped into one school grade we should find approximately
one half of the boys (41-55 per cent) immature (prepubes-
cent), approximately one quarter (26-28 per cent) maturing
(pubescent), and approximately one quarter (18-31 percent)
mature (postpubescent). If we apply the same test to boys
fourteen the proportions would be about one fifth (16-26 per
cent) immature, about one quarter (24-28 per cent) maturing,
and about one half (46-60 per cent) mature. For fifteen-year-
old boys the proportions are about twelve per cent imma-
ture, about twenty -two per cent maturing, and about sixty-
five per cent mature. The writer has applied the estimates
of Crampton to the age-grade distribution of the first grade
of a number of high schools. In every case on the basis of
his figures we should find approximately one quarter of the
boys immature, about one fifth in the maturing stage, and a
little over one half postpubescent. In the seventh grade
about one half of the boys were found, on the basis of such
figures, to be in the prepubescent stage, one quarter each in
the pubescent and postpubescent stage. In the eighth grade
about thirty-five per cent were theoretically in the pre-
pubescent stage, about twenty-three per cent in the pu-
bescent stage, and about forty-one per cent hi the post-
pubescent stage.

The second factor which affects the problem is directly
related to that just considered and arises out of the age-
grade distribution of pupils in the public schools. It is some-
times argued that important changes calling for adjustment
come with adolescence; it is argued that adolescence begins
approximately at the age of twelve (thirteen? fourteen?);

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 69

it is argued that the secondary school should begin with
children at the age of twelve. The obstinate fact is that we
do not get a large proportion of the children of the age of
twelve or even thirteen in the seventh grade. Proper recog-
nition of physiological age would justify some modification
of present conditions. It can never entirely eliminate re-
tardation or acceleration and it never should.

Briefly to summarize, we may say that the theory of salta-
tory development which forms the basis of the argument for
the sharply separated division of elementary and secondary
education is itself open to question. If, however, its validity
be granted, the great variability of the age at which puberty
begins precludes any attempt to organize our schools defi-
nitely on the basis of the phenomena of adolescence. Finally,
even if we grant the validity of the theory of saltatory de-
velopment and even if we should assume that the variability
in the date and duration of puberty were small enough to
permit fairly homogeneous groupings, the age-grade dis-
tribution of pupils in the schools would prevent us from defi-
nitely organizing the system other than in a general way on
the basis of the needs of adolescents.

(2) Subject-matter: Theories of saltatory development or
of gradual development are not without importance in con-
nection with the character of the subject-matter considered
appropriate for the various grades of the school. One of the
most noticeable results of adherence to the theory of salta-
tory development is found in the rather abrupt change from
relatively concrete and familiar subject-matter of the ele-
mentary school to the relatively abstract and unfamiliar
subject-matter of the secondary school. Thus Monroe:1

That the influence of the adolescent factor has been stronger than
most others is shown by the fact that foreign languages, science,

1 Monroe, P., Principles of Secondary Education, p. 10.

70 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

and higher mathematics have been made to conform to this dis-
tinction, when experience, the conditions in other countries, and
the interests of the child would dictate an earlier approach.

Certainly one may readily observe that the character of
the secondary-school studies, even in the first year of the
course, as a whole differ markedly from the character of the
subject-matter of the elementary school, even in the last
grade of that school. Only a thorough-going acceptance of
a theory of saltatory development could justify the abrupt
changes in studies which confront the pupil on passing from
the last grade of the elementary school to the first grade of
the secondary school. The theory of gradual maturing
would permit no such sharp separation of subjects of study,
but would postulate that the transition from relatively
concrete subjects to relatively abstract subjects should be
gradual.

(3} Methods of teaching: A number of factors combine to
make methods of teaching in the secondary school at present
noticeably different from those employed in the elementary
school, especially the fact that teachers in the two depart-
ments ordinarily receive very different training. Problems
of method in teaching in the two schools, however, are af-
fected in no small degree by the theoretical considerations
at present under discussion. It is by no means uncommon to
find very radical differences in the methods of teaching justi-
fied on the basis of the theory of saltatory development at
adolescence. On such grounds we find it argued, for instance,
that methods of teaching language, especially foreign lan-
guages, when begun in the earlier grades, should be taught
in those grades by methods which may be abruptly changed
for pupils in the first grade of the high school. A number
of factors enter to determine any final judgment concerning
the place of the study of foreign language and the methods
by which it should be taught. It must be recognized also

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 71

that different methods of teaching are appropriate for pupils
of different stages of development. Abrupt changes in
methods of teaching, however, could be justified only on the
basis of a theory of saltatory development. The theory of
gradual maturing, while recognizing the need for differences
in method of teaching pupils of different stages of develop-
ment, insists that the transition in methods must be gradual.
Hence it is argued by advocates of that theory that any
abrupt change in teaching methods when the pupil passes
into the secondary school involves a fundamental error.

(4) Discipline and the treatment of pupils: Under exist-
ing circumstances important differences are found between
methods of discipline and of treating pupils in the elementary
school and in the secondary school so that difficult adjust-
ments face the pupils on passing from the one to the other.
In the elementary school, even in the last grades, pupils are
under a maternalistic system of supervision and control,
discipline is a matter of rules, and little if any freedom is
afforded in studies or in conduct. On entering the secondary
school supervision and control are radically changed, reason
tends to replace petty rules, and a considerable amount of
responsibility is thrown on the pupil for his own conduct
and to some extent for his own education. The only possible
justification for such a condition of affairs could be found hi
the theory that the pupil becomes a radically different being,
suddenly endowed with powers never before manifest, be-
tween June and September of the same year. This would be
an extreme form of the theory of saltatory development.
Advocates of that theory have much to answer for in th^
present situation. A theory of gradual maturing would dic-
tate that changes in the methods of discipline and of the
treatment of children should be gradual. Its acceptance in
practice would do much to reform existing conditions in the
relation of elementary and secondary education.

72 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. Explain how the fallacy of selection may affect the problem of measur-
ing the development of a mental trait when averages for different
groups at different ages are made the basis for determining development.

2. Take any one set of measurements in Table XXI or Table XXII. Com-
pare the rates of change year by year in terms of the percentile incre-
ment.

3. From the data given in Tables XXI and XXII, draw graphs of the
curve of development of some of the mental traits.

4. Indicate as many phases as you can of current educational theory and
practice hi the late elementary- or early high-school grades which show
evidence of the influence of a theory of serial or periodic development.

5. Show how those phases of theory and practice would be modified to
conform to the theory of continuous and concomitant development.

6. How would the choice of material and methods of teaching plane
geometry in the eighth grade differ from those found in the first or
second year of the high school on the basis of the theory of serial or
periodic development? How would adherence to the theory of contin-
uous and concomitant development affect this problem?

7. Why is the questionnaire method of doubtful value in obtaining data
concerning the status or development of such phenomena as the rise of
altruism, religious convictions, interests in literature, in the opposite
sex, etc.?

8. Consider differences in teaching English in the elementary school and
in the secondary school. In how far are such differences due possibly
to a theory of saltatory development?

9. Indicate ways in which changes in the treatment which others extend
to pupils in the first year of the high school may itself account for cer-
tain somewhat sudden changes in pupils' attitudes and reactions.

10. On the basis of a theory of gradual development during adolescence
how could the work of the high school be better adapted to provide for
gradual changes in methods of teaching, etc.?

11. What bearing do the theories of development considered in this chapter
have on plans for the reorganization of education? (Cf. Chapter VII).

SELECTED REFERENCES

Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, chap, xii, pp. 184-202.

Colvin, S. S., An Introduction to High-School Teaching, chap. n.

Bonser, F. G., The Reasoning Abilities of Children of the Fourth, Fifth, and

Sixth School Grades.
Burnham, W. H., " The Study of Adolescence," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. I,

pp. 184-95.

MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 73

Douglass, A. A., " The Junior High School," Fifteenth Yearbook of the Na~
tional Society for the Study of Education, part in, chap. n.

Davis, C. O., "Principles and Plans for Reorganizing Secondary Educa-
tion, chap, rv of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School Education, pp.
69-70.

Dewey, J., "Reasoning in Early Childhood," Teachers College Record, vol.
xv, pp. 9-15.

Dewey, J., How We Think, pp. 65-66.

Gilbert, J. A., "Researches on the Mental and Physical Development of
School Children," Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, vol. n,
pp. 40-100.

Hall, G. S., Adolescence.

Inglis, A. J., " A Fundamental Problem in the Reorganization of the High
School," School Review, vol. xxni, pp. 307-18.

King, I., The High School Age, chap, v-vin, pp. 66-124.

Kirkpatrick, E. A., Fundamentals of Child Study, especially chap, rv, pp.
247-87.

Parker, S. C., Methods of Teaching in High Schools, chap, xin, pp. 314-35.

Smedley, F. W., Report of the Development of Child Study and Pedagogical
Investigation of the Chicago Public Schools, vol. n, pp. 10-48.

Terman, L. M., The Measure of Intelligence, chaps, i, n, v, vi.

Thorndike, E. L., The Original Nature of Man, chap, xvi, pp. 245-69.

Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. m, chap, xn, pp. 270-80.

Thorndike, E. L., Notes on Child Study, especially pp. 40-153.

Wallin, J. E. W., Psycho-Motor Norms for Practical Diagnosis, Psycho-
logical Monographs, vol. xxn, no. 2, especially chap. n.

Whipple, G. M., Manual of Physical and Mental Tests, passim, especially
part n (revised edition).

Whipple, G. M., " Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence," chap, vn,
Monroe, P. (Editor), Principles of Secondary Education, pp. 246-312.

Extended bibliography on adolescence; Baldwin, B. T., Physical Growth
and School Progress, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1914), no. 10, pp.
189-212.

CHAPTER III

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL:
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

21. Importance of recognizing individual differences.
Within recent years two factors have tended to emphasize
the importance of recognizing individual differences among
secondary-school pupils: (1) the increasing heterogeneity of
the secondary-school population; (2) the development of
the psychology of individual differences.

(1) Until toward the close of the nineteenth century pupils
enrolled in the secondary schools of the country constituted
a roughly homogeneous group in the sense that they were
boys and girls from relatively well-to-do American families,
who for the most part looked forward to a cultural educa-
tion in the high school which would prepare them for college
and for the higher walks of life. The past quarter century,
however, has marked a period in the development of second-
ary education characterized by the expansion of the second-
ary school so as to provide education for classes of pupils
never before represented in large numbers in the secondary
school. The result has been a very greatly increased hetero-
geneity in the high-school population, and consequently a
demand for increased attention to the varied capacities, in-
terests, and probable future activities of secondary-school
pupils, and to the differentiated needs of society.

(2) Within the past decade educational psychology has
found no more fruitful field than that of the psychology of
individual differences, and in no other field have the results
of psychological investigation contributed more to our edu-
cational theory and practice. It has, of course, always been

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 75

recognized that individuals differ each from the other in
physical and mental traits. Only recently, however, have
we begun to realize the full meaning of that fact and the im-
plications for secondary education. It is probably no exag-
geration to say that the adaptation of secondary education
on the one hand to meet the needs of different capacities,
interests, and probable futures among pupils, and on the
other hand to meet the differentiated needs of society, is the
most important problem of secondary education at the
present time.

Some idea of the great range of abilities among secondary-
school pupils may be gained from an examination of the con-
ditions indicated in Tables XXIII-XXIV.

When we note that high-school pupils who are engaged in
the study of algebra may differ so widely in their abilities to
perform the ordinary operations of arithmetic that some are
from three to four times as capable as others in addition, sub-
traction, multiplication, and division, and almost immeasur-
ably more efficient in handling abstract examples and rea-
soning as measured by the Courtis Tests, the importance of
recognizing individual differences in capacities is impressed
on us.

22. The distribution of individual differences. In consid-
ering differences among pupils of any given group with refer-
ence to the amounts of a trait possessed, there is always an
unconscious tendency to separate the individuals and class-
ify them in more or less discrete groups, e.g., short, medium-
sized, and tall boys; young, average-aged, and older pupils
— with an assumption (again commonly unconscious) that
those groups may be rather sharply differentiated. Such
procedure is usually fallacious and is as objectionable and
productive of evil results in practice as it is unsound and un-
justified in theory. It is a fact of importance that in the
case of most if not all traits having bearing on secondary edu-

76 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE XXIII. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SEVENTH AND
EIGHTH GRADE PUPILS *

Trait

Minimum

Maximum

Range

Maximum-r-
Minimum

Age in months

140.5

220

79.5

I 6

Height in inches

67.5

13.5

1 3

Grip in kilograms

45.5

25.5

2.3

Cancellations, number of A's. . . .
Addition, number of problems.. .
Spelling, per cent right

39
0
20

95
9
94

56
9

2.4
?

4.7

Associations, number right

Auditory memory, per cent

38.3

51.7

2.4

Visual memory, per cent

46.6

96.3

51.7

2.1

* Chambers, W. G., "Individual Differences in Grammar Grade Children," Journal
of Educational Psychology, vol. i, pp. 61-76.

TABLE XXIV. DIFFERENCES IN ARITHMETICAL ABILITIES IN
FIRST-YEAR HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS (COURTIS TESTS)!

Trait and Test

Minimum

Maximum

Range

Maximum -T-
Minimum

1. Addition

115

3.29

2. Subtraction

105

4.20

3. Multiplication

3.40

4. Division

105

4.20

5 Copying figures

205

200

41.00

6. Speed reasoning, attempted ....
Speed reasoning, right

1
0

13
10

12
10

13.00
?

7. Abstract examples, attempted. .
Abstract examples, right

7
0

19
19

12
19

2.71
?

8. Reasoning, examples attempted.
Reasoning, examples right

0
0

?
?

f Compiled and arranged from Courtis, S. A., in Report of the Committee on School Inquiry,
Board of Estimate and Apportionment, City of New York, vol. I, pp. 434, 440-44.

cation, sharply differentiated groupings of pupils must be
considered as arbitrary divisions which may facilitate or-
ganization and administration, but may also lead to bane-
ful educational results.

If we consider, for example, the age of pupils in any grade
of the secondary school we find that the term " average age "
means little, and that the classification of pupils as young,
average-aged, and old is even less intelligible. Thus in the
following table classification on such a basis would mean
little.

TABLE XXV. AGE DISTRIBUTION OF 949 PUPILS ENTERING THE
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY IN 1906*

Boys

Girls

Both

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

11.5-12.0

0.6

0.0

0.2

12.0-12.5

0.6

0.4

12.5-13.0

3.6

2.2

2.7

13.0-13.5

12.4

118

12.4

13.5-14.0

15.2

14.5

140

14.8

14.0-14.5

15.2

116

19.8

171

18.0

14.5-15.0

20.4

105

17.9

179

18.9

15.0-15.5

10.5

14.8

125

13.2

15.5-16.0

9.7

9.0

9.3

16.0-16.5

6.6

6.3

6.4

16.5-17.0

3.3

2.0

2.5

17.0-17.5

1.6

0.5

1.0

17.5-18.0

0.3

0.2

Median

14 yrs., 6 mos.

M.D.

9 mos.

8 mos.

* Compiled and arranged from data given by Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of the Elim-
ination of Students in Public Secondary Schools of New York City, p. 23.

The distribution of various amounts of any trait follows
regular laws and is not haphazard and hit-or-miss. It has
been found that in the case of variable physical and mental
traits, where a sufficiently large number of individuals is
measured and no selective agency is involved, the numbers
of individuals possessing different amounts of the trait

78 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

measured tend to be distributed according to the laws of
probability. Such laws imply that between the lowest amount
of the trait which is found in an individual at one extreme,
and the highest amount which is found in an individual at
the other extreme, individuals will be found possessing differ-
ent intervening amounts of the trait; that the greatest
number of individuals manifesting any given amount of the
trait will be found at a point half-way between the two ex-
tremes; that the number of individuals possessing various
amounts of the trait increases as the mid-point is approached
from either extreme according to a fixed mathematical law.
Such a distribution is illustrated in the following tables.

TABLE XXVI. DISTKIBUTION OF VARIOUS AMOUNTS OF HEIGHT
IN THE CASE OF 1171 AMERICAN SIXTEEN- YEAR-OLD GIRLS,
COMPARED WITH AN APPROXIMATE THEORETIC DISTRIBUTION*

Actual distribution 1171 cases

Theoretic distribution 1024 cases

// ' hi ' t' t

Number

Per cent

Number

136-139

0.2

0.1

140-143

1.0

144-147

4.6

4.4

148-151

159

13.6

11.7

120

152-155

280

23.9

20.5

210

156-159

310

26.5

24.6

252

160-163

218

18.6

20.5

210

164-167

102

8.7

11.7

120

168-171

2.6

4.4

172-175

0.2

1.0

176-179

0.1

139-177

1171

100.0

1024

* Figures for the actual distribution compiled from data given by Burk, F. (after Boas).
"The Growth of Children in Height and Weight," American Journal qf Psychology, vol. IX
(1897-98), p. 268.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

TABLE XXVII. DISTKIBUTION OF AEITHMETICAL ABILITIES
(ABSTRACT EXAMPLES — COURTIS TEST No. 7) nsr THE CASE
OF 996 HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS IN NEW YORK CITY*

Actual Distribution 996 Cases

Theoretic Distribution 1021f Cases

Number of Examples

Done Correctly

Number

Per cent

Number

0-1

0.4

0.1

2-3

1.5

1.0

4-5

5.5

4.4

6-7

108

10.9

11.7

120

8-9

206

20.9

20.5

210

10-11

212

21.5

24.6

252

12-13

203

20.6

20.5

210

14-15

123

12.5

11.7

120

16-17

. 58

4.9

4.4

18-19

1.3

1.0

(20-51)

(0)

(0.0)

0.1

0-19

996

100.0

1024

* Actual distribution compiled from Courtis, S. A., in Report of Committee on School In-
quiry, Board of Estimate and Apportionment, City of New York, vol. i, p. 434.

Such tables as these may readily be plotted and expressed
in the form of graphs in which the amounts of the traits are
measured along the base line from the lowest amount on the
left to the highest amount on the right, and the number of
cases for each amount are measured by the heights of the
vertical lines or columns. (Figures B and C.)

The same general law of distribution is found more or less
applicable to grades in the subjects of study in the secondary
school, although a number of factors tend to make such dis-
tributions complex. Some sample distributions of high-school
grades will illustrate the operation of the law. (Table

xxvin.)

80 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Continuous line ( —
Broken line I - - -

i. i. ) for the actual distribution
- -) for the theoretic distribution

,-> 26

«r

•H

-v 5

Cm. us ftj ^47 /-ff 'f* IS~9 /63 i(,7 ni nf /??

FIGURE B. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION, GIVEN IN TABLE XXV!1
OF THE HEIGHTS OF 1171 SIXTEEN- YEAR-OLD GIRLS

Continuous line (- ••••-•' ) for the actual distribution
Broken line ( -----) for the theoretic distribution,

\''
t

,••

<-K 1C

o 15

S/0
O

Aa o-i j-J 4-f ' 6-7 ' *-) { lo-n '/1-/31 >V-/r tt-ll 'it'l?~ii-lT

FIGURE C. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARITHMETICAL
ABILITIES, GIVEN IN TABLE XXVII, OF 996 HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

TABLE XXVffl. DISTRIBUTION OF HIGH-SCHOOL GBJU>ES*

Percentile

English grades 344 pupils
Madison (Wit.) High
School

Mathematics grades 181
pupils Madison (Wis.)
High School

Average grades 472
pupils eight high schools

grade

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

70-71

0.4

0.0

0.2

72-74

1.6

2.2

0.0

75-77

7.0

7.7

3.8

78-80

17.2

13.8

17.0

81-83

20.5

14.4

19.5

84-86

20.9

18.8

101

21.4

87-89

17.6

15.5

18.2

90-92

9.9

13.8

13.6

93-95

4.5

11.6

5.7

96-98

0.4

2.2

0.6

99-100

0.0

Total

244

100.0

181

100.0

472

100.0

* Tables and the following graphs compiled from data given in Dearborn, W. F., The
Relative Standing of Pupils in the High Schools and in the University, Bulletin of the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, no. 312, Plates V, A, C, I, A.

These figures are reduced to the form of graphs as fol-
lows.

-20

FIGURE D. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION OF GRADES IN
ENGLISH, GIVEN IN TABLE XXVIII

82 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

7S-S-0'

FIGURE E. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION OF GRADES EN
MATHEMATICS, GIVEN IN TABLE XXVIII

FIGURE F. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION OF AVERAGE HIGH-
SCHOOL GRADES, GIVEN IN TABLE XXVIII

In stating the law governing the normal distribution of
various amounts of a given trait, two conditions were made
— that normal distribution wilj not appear if too few cases
are taken to permit the operation of the law of chance and
that the distribution will not be " normal " if any selective
factor, is involved. If a small number of individuals is
measured different amounts of the trait will be scattered
irregularly, sometimes with gaps where no individual's
record is found. This is illustrated in the following table
and figure.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

TABLE XXIX. DISTRIBUTION OF THE GRADES OF 26 PUPILS IN
HISTORY: FIRST YEAR OF HIGH SCHOOL*

Gradei

70-74
75-79
80-84

Number oj Case*
6
2
0

Grade*
85-89
90-94
95-100

Number of Cases
5
6
7

* Compiled from Gray, C. T., Variations in the Grades oj High-School Pupils, p. 12.

> i

£5
t4
vS

75- 80- 85- 90- 95-
74 79 84 89 94 100

FIGURE G. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION GIVEN IN
TABLE XXIX

Such is the usual condition in any recitation group in the
secondary school, and an irregular distribution must be ex-
pected in most pupil groups where less than one hundred
pupils are involved. The greater the number of pupils con-
sidered, other things being equal, the greater the likelihood
that the distribution will approximate the normal.

The second factor which conditions the operation of the
law of probability distribution is the factor of selection
Whenever any group of pupils is selected on the basis of the
amount of a given trait possessed the result is a lop-sided or
" skewed " form of distribution in which one or both ends of
the distribution are lopped off. Thus, if the pupils whose
records are represented in Table XXVIII and Figure F were
separated into three groups on the basis of their average
grades, with the dividing lines at 80 per' cent and 90 per

84 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

cent (assuming that the grading really represented abilities),
we should then have three groups in which the distributions
would appear as in Table XXX and Figure H. Theoreti-
cally something of this sort takes place through our system
of promotion, except that the division is commonly in two
divisions only. However, owing to the inadequacies of our
grading and promotion systems the separation is always in-
complete so that the overlapping of distributions is always
great. This is clearly seen from the distributions of arith-
metical abilities in the various grades of the high school as
measured by Courtis.1

TABLE XXX

Ca«*a

Grade Wo. °;o

< 70-71 1 0.2
(Gjtadea 70-60 C _

I (No.CuJea 99 £ 72-74 0 0.0

( j> Coaea 81.0 (-- — ---

( ( 75-77 18 3.8

< 73-80 80 17.0

(Grades 81-89 \ _81-_83_ . 9.2. _19.-°.

Il(NoCa8ea 279 ( Q^.QQ 101 21.4

/:]t Cases 69.1 ( "

( 87-89 96 18.2

(Grades 90-93 ( 90-92 64 13. C

XII <Ho'Ca*ea 94 { "93-9"6 27 6.7

( fo Cases 19.9 (-----

/ ( 96-98 3 0.0

FIG. H.

Per cent of group

TABLE XXX AND FIGURE H. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION
ABILITIES IN GROUPS WHERE SELECTION is INVOLVED

1 Courtis, S. A., loc. cit.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 85

23. The interpretation of measures. In measuring the
abilities of a group of secondary-school pupils common prac-
tice utilizes a measure for the central tendency only — for
that purpose ordinarily employing the average.1 From
what has been said of the character and distribution of dif-
ferent degrees of a variable trait such as is commonly in-
volved hi school work, it may be seen that a measure of the
central tendency alone (e.g., the average) may be a very un-
trustworthy guide and lead us to leave very important facts
out of consideration. How unsatisfactory a measure of the
central tendency alone may be can be seen from the three
sample distributions given in Table XXXI, each of which
has the same average, median, and mode, but differs in many
other important respects.

From such possible forms of distribution as those indi-
cated in this table, each of which has the same central tend-
ency as the others, but differs radically in the form of dis-
tribution and the amount of variability, it may be seen that
the only real method of indicating the character of the group
is through a table of total distribution. Ordinarily, however,
it is sufficient for all practical purposes to indicate the cen-
tral tendency by means of the average or median, and hi
addition to indicate some measure of the variability by
means of the average deviation, median deviation, or
standard deviation. Most secondary-school matters are
determined erroneously on the basis of group averages and
fail to be adapted to important differences in the pupil
groups.

1 Other measures of the central tendency are the median = the record
above which and below which is an equal number of all the cases, and the
mode = the measure most commonly occurring in the measurement of the
group. For the technical terminology and the technique of applying these
measures consult Whipple, G. M ., Manual of Mental and Physical Tests,
chap, ii ; or Thorndike, E. L., Mental and Social Measurements; or Rugg,
H. O., Statistical Methods Applied to Education.

86 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE XXXI. THREE HYPOTHETICAL DISTRIBUTIONS ILLUSTRAT-
ING THE INADEQUACY OF THE CENTRAL TENDENCY AS THE SOLE

MEASURE OF A VARIABLE TRAIT

Record

Case A
Frequency

Case B
Frequency

Case C
Frequency

100

Total number

100

Average record

50 ) r, . ,

Median record

Kn ( Central

OU f m i

Modal records

20 and 80

50 ( Tendency

Average deviation . . .
Median deviation. . . .

0.64

0.22

3.32
2.75

2.74)
2.64 ^Variability

Standard deviation . .

0.08

3.48

3.22)

24. The causes of individual differences. Many causes
combine to produce the individual differences found among
secondary-school pupils and they affect the theory and prac-
tice of secondary education in several important ways. A
brief analysis of the major factors or groups of factors in-
volved, together with their implications for secondary edu-
cation, forms the basis of the remaining portion of this
chapter. The factors to be considered are as follows: (1)
biological heredity; (2) social heredity; (3) maturity; (4)
environment and training; (5) sex. The classification is an
arbitrary one designed to facilitate analysis, and the factors
suggested are not mutually exclusive in all cases, e.g., social

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 87

heredity is in reality a part of environment and training and
is separated therefrom merely for convenience in handling
the topic.

A glance at the list given at once suggests a multitude
of important problems for secondary education. Some of
the problems connected with maturity have already been
considered in the previous chapters. Biological heredity
(parental and racial) involves problems arising out of the
racially heterogeneous character of our population as well as
including those arising out of the fact that each pupil repre-
sents a distinct problem. Closely connected with problems
arising out of racial heredity and parental heredity in the
biological sense are problems arising out of the factor of so-
cial heredity, particularly important in our miscegeneous
and heterogeneous population. The problems arising out of
differences in other environmental factors cover the entire
economy of the secondary school. Finally, it will be recog-
nized that individual differences due to sex introduce all the
problems involved in questions of segregation, coeducation,
etc.

25. Common errors in interpreting differences. Certain
errors are so common in the interpretation of individual
differences among secondary-school pupils that they deserve
mention here.

(1) Analogies between individual differences in physical
traits and individual differences in mental traits are danger-
ous unless supported by more direct evidence. The error is
common of assuming important differences in mental traits
because of easily observed differences in physical traits
among pupils of different races, sex, or degrees of physical
maturity.

(2) Care must be taken to distinguish between differ-
ences which are due to inborn tendencies and those which
are due to environment and training. The former may be

88 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

accepted as relatively fixed factors to which education must
conform. The latter must be considered as acquired and,
therefore, subject to modification through education. Na-
ture must be accepted: the environment and training may
be controlled. This point is important in connection with
differences due to biological heredity and social heredity and
in connection with sex differences.

(3) The existence of differences among pupils does not
necessarily imply the necessity or desirability of adapting
secondary education to them. In many cases the demands of
highly artificial conditions of life may demand like educa-
tion for the very purpose of diminishing those differences.
In other cases differentiated education is both necessary and
desirable.

(4) Lack of differences does not necessarily justify the
same form of secondary education for all. Differences in
future needs will commonly justify differences in secondary
education for different groups of pupils.

(5) The indirect and contingent results of certain original
differences must not be confused with those directly and
necessarily involved. Sex differences in physical traits, for
example, frequently cause differences in the social treatment
of boys and girls, which in turn cause differences in mental
attitudes which create actual differences in mental traits be-
tween the sexes. Such differences must be considered as con-
tingent and not necessary results. Like treatment of boys
and girls might well eliminate many sex differences now
found which are the results of unlike treatment. This may
or may not be desirable. The same principle also applies to
many so-called racial differences. Doubtless many observ-
able traits which we note in certain races in America are due
solely or primarily to the social treatment to which they are
subjected. Many of these secondary education should aim
to eradicate.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 89

(6) The fallacy of unfair selection always lurks in the
path of the investigator of individual differences among
pupils. A comparison, for instance, of the school records of
pupils of different nationalities almost always involves a
difference in selection.

26. Individual differences due to biological heredity.
That individual differences in physical traits are determined
primarily by heredity is readily recognized. That mental
traits also are largely determined by heredity is not so readily
recognized, though probably no less true. In the case both
of physical and of mental traits it must be conceived that the
limit which a trait may reach in any given individual is de-
termined by heredity. Within the range from zero to that
limit what status the individual may reach is more or less de-
termined by the environment and by training, which is,
however, within limits, more potent in the case of mental
traits than in the case of physical traits.

Among secondary-school pupils there can be no doubt
that the great amount of variability found is due primarily
to differences in the parentage and ancestry of those pupils.
Since each individual pupil represents an independent prob-
lem the importance of individual differences is emphasized.
The impossibility of definite analysis of individual differ-
ences due to differences in immediate or parental heredity
(where each individual or family group of individuals must,
from the nature of the case, constitute a separate problem
and therefore defy generalization) tends to influence us to
generalize on the basis of remote or racial inheritance. Such
procedure is likely to lead either to an overemphasis or an
underemphasis of the importance of racial differences with
reference to the treatment of secondary-school pupils. This
is likely to happen for one or both of two reasons. In the
first place, any attempt to analyze racial groups for the pur-
pose of discovering racial differences meets with an initial

90 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

difficulty in the fact that intermarriage has so extensively
affected population in all countries, but particularly in
America, that careful distinction is in most cases totally im-
possible even where differences in nationality would appear
to indicate differences in race. In the second place, it must
be remembered that in all probability differences found
among individuals of the same racial ancestry are commonly
so great as to swallow up the differences between any two
racial groups of importance in our secondary schools as far
as differences due to biological heredity alone are concerned, and
except in so far as differences due to natural heredity may in-
directly lead to important differences in social heredity and
environment. This may be illustrated by the grades in Eng-
lish received by 149 white and 149 negro pupils in the high
schools of New York City.

TABLE XXXH *

Grades received

White Pupils

Negroes

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

0-29

0.7

0.0

30-39

1.3

40-49

2.7

8.7

50-59

9.4

29.5

60-69

49.0

45.0

70-79

26.2

10.8

80-89

8.7

4.7

90-100
Total

2.2

0.0

149

100.0

149

100.0

Average grade
A.D.

66.8 %
7.45

61.3 %

7.25

* Compiled from Mayo, M. J., The Mental Capacity of the American Negro, p. 30.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

C on^ »v\v».ov>. \

*40

•30

•H

»u

Jf
*M

*«•

•

•
•

C F r

i 1

C-t-aAe o-;i9 1 3 0-33 -fo-f^ fo-rs

**• " |I° ^ "> T

fe' 5. *T ' *

«- « '. *- °J^
* • ^»

J^lj- - - r

1 * i

en • <yt ', •*> ' ff) \<n
1- • rr, , - ' ' hr
• i • I —

FIGUBE I. ILLUSTRATING TABLE XXXII

92 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

This table and the accompanying graph are presented
here, not as indicating the relative status of white and negro
pupils in the secondary school, but to illustrate the fact that
where differences in the average attainment of two different
groups are as wide as 66.8 (for whites) and 61.3 (for negroes),
and the variability much the same, the overlapping is so
great that the differences between whites and negroes is
swallowed up by the differences between the whites them-
selves or between the negroes themselves. In general the
statement made by Thorndike is in point:

My own estimate is that greater differences will be found in the
case of the so-called "higher" traits, such as the capacity to asso-
ciate and to analyze, thinking with parts or elements, and origi-
nality, than in the case of sensory and sensori-motor traits, but that
there will still be very great overlapping. Calling the difference
between the original capacity of the lowest congenital idiot and
that of the average modern European 100, I should expect the
average deviation of one pure race from another in original capacity
to be below 10 and above 1, and the difference between the central
tendency of the most and the least gifted races to be below 50 and
above 10. I should consider 3 and 25 as reasonable guesses for
the two differences.

Even if the differences were far larger than these, the practical
precept for education would remain unchanged. It is, of course,
that selection by race of original natures to be educated is nowhere
nearly as effective as selection of the superior individuals regard-
less of race. There is much overlapping and the differences in
original nature within the same race are, except in extreme cases,
many times as great as the differences between races as wholes.1

The fact is, of course, that the secondary school, in so far
as its selective function operates, selects individuals on a
basis which is roughly the same for all who enter or attempt
to enter, with the result that if races differ essentially their
representatives in the secondary school indicate different

1 Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. in, p. 224. Quoted with
the permission of the publishers, Teachers College Bureau of Publications.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 93

forms of selection with reference to race. This may be seen
from the following hypothetical diagram:

Scale Inferiority Superiority

a •
Race A

Race B

RaceC —

Thus it is quite probable that the negroes in the secondary
school represent a much more select portion of that race
than the selection of whites represented by white children in
the school. Hence it follows that secondary-school pupils of
a race, which as a whole may be considered of inferior mental
capacity, are not necessarily themselves inferior to secondary-
school pupils belonging to a race which as a whole may be
considered of superior mental capacity. Certainly it is most
unsafe to assume certain characteristics of a race and to as-
sume that those characteristics will be found in all repre-
sentatives of that race in the secondary school.

On the whole, it is probably safe to say that whatever
importance for secondary education is to be attached to in-
dividual differences due to race considered from the stand-
point of biological heredity, far greater importance is to be
attached to race influence as conditioning the social heredity
and differences in the environment — indirect rather than
direct results. As a matter of fact it is extremely difficult,
if not quite impossible, to separate these factors, just as it is
extremely difficult always to separate the results of heredity
and environment and training.

Perhaps the nearest approach to exceptional differences
due to racial heredity for any large group of secondary school
pupils may be found in the cases of negroes and whites.
Mayo has measured the accomplishment of 150 negroes in

94 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

the high schools of New York City and compared it with
that of a like number of white pupils chosen at random. The
results of his study are given in Table XXXIII. It must be
remembered in interpreting the table that the negroes repre-
sent a relatively high selection of their race and that inter-
marriage with whites has more or less modified the racial
stock.

TABLE XXXIII*

Grades

English

Foreign
Lan-
guages

Mathe-
matics

Science

History

Ancient
Lan-
guages

Com-
mercial
Subjects

All

Subjects

Below 20

20- 24

25- 29

30- 34

35- 39

40- 44

45- 49

50- 54

55- 59

60- 64

65- 69

70- 74

Ifl

75- 79

80- 84

85- 89

90-100

Cases

149

150

140

143

147

131

130

150

Median

fil

M.D.

4.5

5.4

6.0

7.8

7.4

3.0

5.8

4.5

7.3

3.9

7.3

7.7

3.6

4.0

2.6

Per cent of C. )

surpassing >
Median of W.)

! Compiled and arranged from Mayo, M. J., The Menial Capacity oj the American Negro,
especially pp. 26-45. W. = white pupils: C. = negroes.

From this table it may be noted that while the white
pupils invariably show a higher average standing than the
negro, the difference in the medians ranges only from 4 to 8,
and that for all subjects the averages indicate a difference
of four points. It is further to be noted that about thirty

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

per cent of the negroes reach or surpass the median record for
the white pupils. In view of these facts it cannot be said that
the white pupils in the high school excel the selected negroes
found there to an extent to justify any appreciable differ-
ences in accomplishment or expectation in high-school work.

If this is true when comparing whites and negroes, it is,
of course, probably even more in point when the comparison
is made between the various white stocks.

27. Individual differences due to social heredity. One
important group of environmental forces includes all those
social customs, conventions, institutions, modes of thought,
action, and feeling to which the individual falls heir by virtue
of being born into any given society or social grouping. This
set of forces we may well differentiate from other environ-
mental forces under the term social heredity. An impor-
tant factor causing individual differences in any society, so-
cial heredity is especially important in such a country as the
United States where large groups of individuals of widely
differing forms of social heredity form constituent elements
of one larger social group.

According to the census of 1910 the distribution of popu-
lation in the United States was as follows:

TABLE XXXIV*

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

Native white

68 389 104

744

Native parentage

49,488,441

53.8

Foreign-born parentage.. .

18,900,663

20.6

Foreign-born white

13 343 583

14 5

Negro

9 828 294

10 7

All others — Indians, etc . . .

411,285

0.4

Total

91 972 266

100.0

* Thirteenth Centus (1910), vol. i, p. 132.

96 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

It is a fact not without significance for secondary educa-
tion that only a little more than one half of the population
of the United States is of native white parentage and that
the proportion has constantly decreased for a number of
decades. This may be noted from the following table.

TABLE XXXV*

I860
(per
cent)

1860
(per
cent)

1870
(per
cent)

1880
(per
cent)

1890
(per
cent)

1900
(per
cent)

1910

(per
cent)

Foreign-born

9.7

12.0

14.2
13.8

13.1
16.5

14.5
18.3

13.4
20.6

14.5
20.6

Native: foreign-born
parentage

Total foreign par-
entage

28.0

29.6

32.8

34.0

35.1

* Thirteenth Census (1910), vol. i, p. 132.

This condition apparently more or less affects the number
of children of various ages who continue their education into
the secondary school.

TABLE XXXVI. SHOWING THE PEBCENTAGES OF CHILDREN
OF VARIOUS AGE GROUPS ATTENDING SCHOOL — NATIVE
AND FOREIGN STOCKS: 1909-10*

Native White

Yean of Age

Total

Native
Parentage

Foreign or
Mixed
Parentage

Foreign-born
whites

Negro

93.1

92.0

95.6

90.2

70.1

91.9

90.9

94.2

87.7

68.4

84.7

85.3

83.1

71.6

62.3

71.5

75.0

63.5

46.2

53.9

53.7

58.9

41.8

23.7

41.5

38.0

42.9

26.7

12.2

29.0

25.1

28.6

16.9

6.8

17.9

* Thirteenth Census (1910), vol. I, p. 1000.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 97

It is, of course, in the field of derived and acquired in-
terests, attitudes, ideals, customs, standards, modes of
thought, action, and feeling, that we may expect to find the
greatest differences among secondary-school pupils due to
differences in social heredity. It is probable that English,
American, Russian, Italian, French, Hebrew, and other
races do not differ materially in original tendencies and ca-
pacities. It is obvious, however, that they do differ materi-
ally in acquired interests, attitudes, and the like. In general
we may say that individual differences among secondary-
school pupils due to biological heredity are relatively unim-
portant, but that individual differences due to social heredity
are great and important. The greater the number of groups
of differing social heredity combined in any one society and
the greater the differences in the customs, ideals, standards,
modes of thought, action, and feeling of the various groups
thus combined, the greater the individual differences we
may expect to find due to the factor of social heredity and
the more important they become. In 1850 the population
of the United States, while by no means homogeneous,
nevertheless comprised a relatively small number of differ-
ent nationalities, and those nationalities were for the most
part such as could be classified as " English-speaking " or,
at least, as in general represented the social ideals, etc.,
of Northern Europe. Within the past half-century or less
that condition has been modified rapidly, as may be seen
from Table XXXVII.

Division of the foreign-born population into English-
speaking and non-English-speaking groups is here made not
merely to emphasize the language factor, important though
it is, but also because such groupings indicate in the case of
the English-speaking population social heredity which is
roughly homogeneous and similar to the basic American
stock, and in the case of the non-English-speaking popula-

98 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE XXXVII. DISTRIBUTION OF THE FOREIGN-BORN

POPULATION *

18SO

1870

1890

1910

United States: English-speaking.. .
Non-English speaking

66.3
33.7

56.0
44.0

42.4
57.6

28.1
71.9

Massachusetts: English-speaking. .
Non-English speaking

95.2
4.8

93.4
6.6

71.7
28.3

47.5
52.5

* Compiled and arranged from data given in the Thirteenth Census (1910).

tion, forms of social heredity which differ from that of the
basic American stock and are decidedly heterogeneous. In
the one case the integration of American society is relatively
easy: in the other it is very difficult. In the case of the
English-speaking population the general stimulus of life hi
American society may, perhaps, be relied upon to contribute
extensively to the development of that degree of homogene-
ity, of unity and unanimity, necessary for the permanence
of American institutions. In the case of widely differenti-
ated foreign stocks such as are represented by the non-
English-speaking groups, it is probable that the school must
be relied on to a much greater extent, involving a longer
period of education and an education which should aim
definitely toward the integration of large groups of different
forms of social heredity.

It has frequently been thought that the problems arising
out of immigration are concerned largely with elementary
education. Important as those problems are for elementary
education they are by no means confined to it. Numerous
important problems are also involved for secondary edu-
cation. It has long been recognized that some of the grav-
est problems arising out of immigration center around the
second generation of aliens. The first generations of aliens

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

bring with them from their native lands ideals, standards,
habits of thought, feeling, and action, which, to be sure,
differ from our own and from each other, but which are,
nevertheless, good ideals, standards, and habits for the most
part. Good or bad they are controlling forces in the lives of
immigrants. The-second generation abandon the standards,
ideals, and habits of their parents and frequently fail to
replace them with American traits. This is the group which
tends in increasing numbers to reach the secondary school
and it forms a larger group than is generally recognized.
Thus in 1908 it was found that 55.7 per cent of the pupils in
the high schools of New York City were of foreign parentage,
and that more than fifty different countries were represented
by high-school pupils.1

In the following table are presented figures showing the
parentage of school children in Worcester, Massachusetts,
for two decades.

TABLE XXXVTH*

Parentt born in

1895

1900

1905

1910

1915

United States

7,183

8,576

8,703

8,424

9,486

Canada

1 230

1,752

1,356

1 268

1 440

Ireland

3 136

3339

2952

2502

2490

England

815

923

825

760

833

Sweden

1 684

2555

2837

2647

2 716

Russia

321

713

1,237

2031

3 526

Italy

156

258

569

1 150

Finland

117

170

335

527

All others

886

1,002

1,090

1 254

1 617

Totals

15,255

19,133

19,428

19790

23 785

United States

47.1%

44.8%

448%

426%

399%

All others

52.9%

55.2%

57.4%

60.1%

* Sixty-eighth Annual Report of the Public Schools of Worcester, Massachusetts (1916),
p. 555.

1 Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of Elimination of Students in Public
Secondary Schools of New York City, pp. 32-38.

100 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Such figures as those given in this table (and the situation
is by no means extreme in Worcester) suggest the impor-
tance of recognizing differences among school children in
social heredity. They emphasize the importance of some
phases of the work of the secondary school which are de-
signed to operate as integrating forces.

28. Individual differences due to environment. It is un-
fortunately true that pupils receiving the benefits of sec-
ondary education are selected on the basis of economic and
social status as well as, if not more than, on the basis of in-
tellectual fitness. It is also unfortunately true that for many
pupils who do attend the secondary school, conditions of the
home and community environment are such as to handicap
them seriously in their studies. The complexity of environ-
mental conditions precludes any satisfactory analysis other
than for special localities. Here we have three studies which
afford us more or less knowledge.

Holley 1 made a study of the pupils in the Decatur, Illi-
nois, High School, dividing 198 families investigated into
three groups as follows: Group I: those from which all the
older children had completed the high-school course (78
families, 72 per cent of 334 children who had secured a high-
school education); Group II: those from which none of the
older children had completed the high-school course (59
families, 57 per cent of the 308 children who had not finished
high school); Group III: those in which some of the older
children had graduated from the high school, while some
had not graduated. By the questionnaire method Groups
I and II were compared with the following results:

1 Holley, C. E., The Influence of Family Income and Other Factors on
High-School Attendance. (Pamphlet published by the University of Illinois,
School of Education, Seminary in Educational Administration.) Cf. Holley,
C. E., "The Relationship between Persistence in School and Home Condi-
tions," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education,
port n.

101

Environmental Circumstance Group I Group II

a. Oration of father | j

} |

fc Median years edn»-
lion of parents

c. Yearly income (me-

dian) $2,000 $1,350

Monthly rental (me-

dian) 27.50 20.00

d. Good magazines Frequently Infrequently
Books in library (me- 271 83

dian)

While it is clear that economic status is an important factor in
determining whether, in the community that we studied, a child
shall or shall not receive a high school education, it does not follow
that economic status is directly correlated with intellectual ability.
In so far as mental ability is measured by standing in high school
subjects, the differences in ability between children of the two
groups are insignificant. The average semester's grade for children
of Group I was 85.1 per cent; for children of Group H, 84 per cent.
A difference so slight as this could justify only the conclusion that,
measured by this standard, the two groups are of approximately
equal ability.

On this last point raised by Holley we must remember
that if economic and other environmental conditions operate
to exclude poorer children from the secondary school, then
those poorer children who do go to the secondary school
probably represent a somewhat higher selection of poorer
children.

Van Denburg's study of conditions found in the case of
high-school pupils in New York City indicate conditions
somewhat different from those found in Decatur by Holley.
The monthly rentals paid by the families of 420 children
entering the high schools in 1908 were distributed as given
in Table XXXIX.

102 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
TABLE XXXIX*

Monthly rental

Per cent of pupils

Monthly rental

Per cent of pupils

$10-$15

$40-$45

20- 25

50- 55

30- 35

60- 65

70-150

* Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of the Elimination of Students in Public Secondary Schoolf
of New York City, pp. 79-83.

On the whole the economic status of these pupils (so far as is
shown by the monthly rental) seems to be only a slight factor in the
determination of length of stay in the high school. . . . We saw in
an earlier section that children remain through the elementary
school and enter high school from homes of the most meager finan-
cial resources. We now find that such children remain in high
school as long or nearly as long as do children whose parents pay
$40 or more a month for rent.1

Van Denburg also found that 827 fathers of high school
pupils were engaged in 126 different occupations, an average
of about seven to each occupation listed and seven occupa-
tions listed enrolling twenty-five or more fathers.2 Of older
brothers and sisters 556 were engaged in 164 listed occupa-
tions other than study in school or college. Of those, two
occupations only engaged twenty-five or more brothers or
sisters.3 The occupations of fathers are summarized by Van
Denburg. (Table XL.)

The figures shown in Table XL may be compared with
the figures obtained by King for 1123 high-school pupils in
three cities in Iowa. (Table XLI.)

With references to most categories the likenesses for the

1 Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., pp. 113-14. 2 Ibid., pp. 39-48.

8 Ibid., pp. 69-68. These and other quotations from Van Denburg are
made with the permission of the publishers, Teachers College Bureau of
Publications.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 103

TABLE XL. OCCUPATIONS OF FATHERS (NEW YORK CITY)*

Occupations

Total number

High School 1906
(per cent)

Population
1900 (per cent)

Professional

4.4

2.3

Semi-professional

4.4

3.7

Artisans — contractors

150

18.1

16.4

Federal and city employees . . .
Clerical helpers

61
52

7.4
6.3

3.6
11.2

Office workers, agents

106

12.8

7.9

Manufacturer and trade

227

27.5

28.1

Printing trades

4 2

2 5

Personal service

4.9

7.7

Transportation

5.5

6 6

Factory — labor

4.4

10.0

Total

826

100 0

* Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., pp. 44, 128.

two types of communities are greater than one would ex-
pect. The greatest difference, of course, is found in the case
of agriculture in the lowan cities. (Table XLI.)

29. Individual differences in interests, etc. Individual
differences among secondary-school pupils due to differ-
ences in interests, life aims, school motives, and the like, are
obviously important factors in the work of the secondary
school. They are, to be sure, the resultants of differences in
heredity and environment, but deserve special attention here
as important elements determining both theory and prac-
tice in the secondary school. The multiplexity and com-
plexity of those differences preclude any extensive analysis.
However, the occupational preferences of secondary-school
pupils and their attitudes toward school work are important
enough to justify brief consideration.1

1 For some excellent studies see King, I.f The High-School Age, chaps.
x-xn.

104 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE XLL FATHERS' OCCUPATIONS OF 1123 PUPILS IN IOWA,
1913, AND OF 1004 IN NEW YORK CITY, 1906*

Occupations

Iowa

New York City

Number

Per cent

Number

Agriculture

151

268
156
912
75
93
19
30
40
18
10
51
63
17
40

13.46

23.88
13.80
8.20
6.69
8.29
1.70
2.68
3.57
1.60
.89
4.54
5.62
1.51
3.57

0.00
22.62
14.80
10.57
4.59
3.60
3.60
5.19
6.09
4.09
3.50
3.60
8.86
1.30
7.57

0
227
150
106
46
36
36
52
61
41
35
36
89
13
76

Trade and Manufacturing ....
Artisans

Middlemen and office workers.
Transportation

Professional

Semi-professional

Clerical

City and federal employees . . .
Personal service

Printing trades

Unclassified

Blank

Retired

Dead

Total

1,123

100.00

1,004

_ * King, I., The High-School Age, p. 159. Quoted with the permission of the author and
his publishers, The Bobbs-Merrill Company.

Van Denburg secured data from 382 boys and 620 girls
entering the high schools of New York City in answer to the
question: " What do you expect to do for a living? " Of the
boys 156 (41 per cent) made no choice, 15 (4 per cent) made
a partial choice, 211 (55 per cent) made a somewhat definite
choice. Of the girls 316 (51 per cent) made no choice, 26
(about 4 per cent) expected to go to college, and 278 (45 per
cent) made a somewhat definite choice.1 The distribution
of occupations was very wide and scattering. Occupations
chosen by two or more per cent of those who expressed a
choice are shown in Table XLII.

1 Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., pp. 49-57.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
TABLE XTJT*

105

Boys

Girh

Occupations

No.

Per cent

Occupations

No.

Per cent

Architect

3.3

Bookkeeper. . .

3 2

Business

17 0

Designer

2 1

Electrician

4.2

Dressmaker. . . .

2.5

Engineer

2.3

Musician

2 5

Engineer, civil

18.4

Stenographer . . .

16 9

Engineer, electrical

12 7

Teacher, school.

167

60 0

Engineer, mechanical

2.3

Teacher, music.

4.3

Law

11 4

Scattering. .

8 6

Medicine

3 3

Teacher

5 2

Miscellaneous trade

3 7

Miscellaneous construction.
Scattering

14
19

6.6
9.0

Total

211

100 0

Total .

278

100 0

* Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., pp. 51, 55. Slight percentage inaccuracies in original tables
tin corrected.

King compares the figures for the pupils in the high schools
of New York City with those for three fairly large high
schools in Iowa and also gives figures for three small high
schools in Iowa. (Table XLIII.)

The fact that approximately one half of the pupils enter-
ing the New York City high schools were as yet undecided
as to their future vocations is indicative of the fact that the
work of the elementary school has not been able to develop
life interests, and that in most of those cases such dominant
interests will be formed during attendance at the secondary
school. Hence emphasis is placed on the work of the first
years of the secondary-school course as affording opportu-
nity for the discovery of interests and their cultivation. King
found that more than three quarters of pupils in all grades
of three Iowa high schools had decided on definite vocations.1
1 King, I., The High-School Age, p. 162.

106 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE XLIH. VOCATIONS CHOSEN BY PUPILS IN THE HIGH
SCHOOLS OF IOWA AND OF NEW YORK CITY*

Occupations chosen

Three large
high schools in
Iowa

Three small
high schools in
Iowa

New York City
high schools

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

Teaching

13
94
16

32
34

261

'85

-24
3
4
23

1
17
1

69
10

78
4
24
1

168

Engineering

Stenography and bookkeeping

Law

Farming

Nursing

Medicine

30
33

7
36
1

2
3

4
19

Business

Music

Dentistry

8
8
16
8
8
5

Pharmacy

Salesman

Mechanic

Army and navy

Labor

Domestic science

22
8
11
6
1
5

Housekeeping

...

' i

2
3
1

Librarian

Physical training

1
5
6
6

Civil service

Office work

• • •

2
"2

Architecture

Millinery

Totals

323

459

180

260

* King, I., The High-School Age, pp. 163-64.

Van Denburg and King have collected valuable data con-
cerning the attitudes assumed by high school pupils toward
the work of the secondary school. Their figures are- pre-
sented hi the following tables :

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

107

TABLE XLIV. PUPILS' ESTIMATES OF THE VALUE OF A HIGH-
SCHOOL COURSE*

a. New York City: "Do you consider a high-school education necessary
for the realization of your plans for the future?"

Numbers

Per cents

Total

Yes

Doubtful

Yes

Doubtful

Boys

382
620
1,002

215
255
470

66
135
201

101

230
331

56
41

22
20

27
37
33

Girls

Both

b. lowan Cities : " Are four years in high school necessary for your purpose? '

Numbers

Per cents

Total

Yes

Uncertain

Yes

Uncertain

Boys

534

533
1,067

354
336
690

87
84
171

93
113
206

66
63
66

16
16
16

18
21
18

Girls

Both

* Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., pp. 69-72; King, I., op. cit., p. 166.

TABLE XLV. PUPILS' INTENTIONS OF STAYING FOUB YEABS IN
HIGH SCHOOL f

a. New York City: "Do you intend to complete your high-school course?"

Numbers

Per cents

Total

Yes

Doubtful

Yes

Doubtful

Boys

382
620
1,002

207
316
523

115
179
294

60
125
185

54
51
52

30
29
29

16
20
19

Girls

Both

t Van Denburg, J. K., loc. cit.; King, I., loc. cit.

108 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

b. lowan Cities: "Do you intend to spend four years in high school?"

Numbers

Per cents

Total

Yes

Uncertain

Yes

Uncertain

Boys

548
614
1,162

470
534
1,004

34
33

47
91

85
87
87

7
5
5

8
8
8

Girls

Both

TABLE XLVL*
lowan Cities: "Is a college education necessary for your purpose?"

Numbers

Per cents

Total

Yes

Uncertain

Yes

Uncertain

Boys

537
617
1,154

337
297
634

87
114
201

113
206
319

63
48
55

16
19
17

21
33

Girls

Both

* King, I., loc. cit.

30. Individual differences due to sex. In the United
States it is the general practice to group boys and girls to-
gether for purposes of administration and instruction, excep-
tions to this practice being common only in private second-
ary schools and in certain large cities. In most foreign coun-
tries the segregation of boys and girls is the general rule in
the secondary schools. Whether coeducation or segregation
be the practice important problems for secondary education
arise out of the differences due to sex. In the case of segrega-
tion such problems are somewhat less complex than in the
case of coeducation and less concern the individual teacher.
In the case of coeducation those problems affect every phase

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 109

of the work of the secondary school. It is, therefore, neces-
sary to consider briefly certain individual differences in
physical, mental, and social traits among secondary school
pupils due to difference in sex.

Differences in physical traits between men and women or
boys and girls, due to the sex factor, are too obvious to re-
quire extended discussion. It suffices to note a few of the
more important phenomena. Thus we may note from Tables
IV, V, XI, and XIII that girls apparently approach the max-
imum of growth in many physical traits from a year to two
years before boys. From Tables IV and V we may note that
from about 11.5 to about 14.5 years of age girls apparently
exceed boys in height and weight, although boys excel girls in
height and weight at all other ages. Likewise we may note
that with reference to pubescence and adolescence girls begin
to mature a year or two before boys with resultant character-
istic differences. One should not fail to recognize that differ-
ences due to such physical phenomena are of especial im-
portance in connection with secondary education, however
much or however little they may affect elementary or higher
education. Likewise one should not fail to note that these
physical traits are but slightly amenable to education and
that as far as their direct effects are concerned secondary ed-
ucation must be guided rather than guide. This is not so
true, however, of the indirect effects of physical traits which
may, and probably should be, modified by education.

Differences in mental traits due to sex may best be con-
sidered under two separate heads: (1) mental processes, such
as association, memory, etc.; (2) interests, attitudes, etc.
Data dealing with mental processes have already been pre-
sented in Tables XIX, XX, XXI, and XXII. In Table XIX
data indicate that there is apparently little if any difference
between boys and girls in their ability to discriminate weights.
In Table XX data apparently indicate that boys excel girls

110 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

in their ability to react quickly to a given stimulus. In
Tables XXI and XXII the data indicate a practical identity
of ability on the part of boys and girls in association, mem-
ory, etc. Such differences as are found in any case are negli-
gible and probably less than differences due to the imper-
fection of the measurements. Essentially the same result*
(inappreciable differences) have been found in the great
majority of investigations of mental processes. Thus Thomp-
son measured men and women students in the University of
Chicago in forty-five mental traits. In twenty-one of those
traits the men excelled the women by greater or less amounts.
In twenty-one traits the women excelled and in four traits
they were approximately equal in ability. In the few cases
where the superiority was marked on either side previous
general training was quite probable. On the average the per
cent of men reaching or exceeding the median for the women
was fifty, thus indicating a general equality.1

Courtis measured 1235 boys and 1168 girls in the seventh
grade of the schools of New York City in speed multiplica-
tion and in speed reasoning with the results indicated in
Table XLVII.

Such differences justify the statement made by Courtis:2

In view of the extent to which the sex groups overlap, the fact
of a small difference in the average scores of the groups need not
be considered in planning the course of study.

The same opinion is expressed by Thorndike:3

The most important characteristic of these differences is their
small amount. The individual differences within one sex so enor-

1 Thompson, Helen B., Psychological Norms in Men and Women, Univer-
sity of Chicago Contributions to Philosophy, vol. 4, no. 1. Data here taken
from the resume by Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. in, pp.
178-79.

8 Courtis, S. A., loc. cit.

3 Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. in, p. 184. Quoted with
permission.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

111

TABLE XL VII. ARITHMETICAL ABILITIES OF BOYS AND GIRLS
COMPARED *

(A)

(B)

Test 3 (Courtis)

Test 6 (Courtis)

Per cent making

Per cent making the score

the score

Score

Attempts

Rights

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girl*

2.7

4.1

9.2

15.0

11.7

6.7

4.5

5.6

16.3

23.4

36.6

31.0

13.1

14.7

19.8

20.2

32.4

36.9

19.3

19.7

19.8

16.9

10.5

15 a

23.2

23.4

15.9

11.3

6.2

7.0

19.3

18.5

8.9

5.2

1.1

1.0

9.6

7.5

4.0

2.1

1.0

4.8

4.5

1.9

2.7

1.8

105

1.2

1.5

115

125

100.0

Average score

40.1
1 235

42.9
• 1 168

100.0

Average score

5.7

5.6

4.2

3.6

Total cases

1,235

1,168

1,235

1,168

* Compiled from Courtis, S. A., Report of Committee on School Inquiry, Board of Estimate
and Apportionment, City of New York, vol. I, p. 526.

mously outweigh the differences between the sexes in these intel-
lectual and semi-intellectual traits that for practical purposes the
sex difference may be disregarded. So far as ability goes, there
could hardly be a stupider way to get two groups alike within each
group, but differing between the groups, than to take the two sexes.
As is well known, the experiments of the past generation in educat-
ing women have shown their equal competence in school work of
elementary, secondary and collegiate grade. The present genera-
tion's experience is showing the same fact for professional and busi-
ness service. The psychologists' measurements lead to the con-
clusion that this equality of achievement comes from an equality
of natural gifts, not from an overstraining of the lesser talents of
women.

112 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

S.IS

Continuous line ( ) for boys ,

Broken line ( ) for girls.

Hare. j- lf- tf }s- ff- fs- ^f 7 f &s gs- laf. „

FIGURE J. ILLUSTRATING TABLE XLVII (A)

•) foif boys.

Broken Una (- ) for girls.

2. 3 -f 4 f 7 a 3 AA // vi *J y.«

FIGURE K. ILLUSTRATING TABLE XLVII (B)

The practical equality of capacity in such mental processes
as are involved in the studies of the secondary school has
been sufficiently well established by the experience of the
past half -century* and more of coeducational practice in this
country. Such differences as are found in the achievements
of boys and girls in the various secondary-school subjects
are probably to be ascribed to differences in interests rather
than to inherent differences in capacity.

While the differences between the central tendencies
for boys and girls in the case of most mental traits are ap-
parently negligible it has been suggested that the varia-

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 118

bility of boys is greater than that of girls. Thus Thorn-
dike:1

These facts make it extremely probable that, except in the two
years nearest the age of puberty for girls, the male sex is slightly
more variable. From the time of puberty for boys to maturity this
difference seems to increase rapidly, though the records of marks
which support this conclusion are not the best of evidence. The
variability of girls with respect to the age at which any given school
grade is reached is less than that of boys. The difference is not nec-
essarily attributable in its entirety to an original difference between
the natures of boys and girls.

The evidence for this opinion is by no means satisfactory.
If, however, further investigation should establish it, the
greater variability of boys would mean that more boys than
girls would be found both among the least capable and
among the most capable pupils of any large group. Ter-
man's studies of general intelligence lead him to the fol-
lowing conclusion:

Apart from the small superiority of girls, the distribution of
intelligence in the two sexes is not different. The supposed wider
variation of boys is not found. Girls do not group themselves
about the median more closely than do boys. The range of I Q
(Intelligence Quotient) including the middle fifty per cent is ap-
proximately the same for the two sexes.2

Differences between boys and girls in interests and atti-
tudes are probably of far greater extent and importance for
secondary education than are differences in mental abilities.
The latter are in all probability very small and their char-
acter is largely determined by original nature, plus inner
growth, plus exercise through training. The mental processes
may be increased through growth and exercise or, perhaps,-

1 Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. m, pp. 194-95.

2 Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, p. 70.

114 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

decreased through injury or disuse. They cannot, how-
ever, be radically modified in character. Interests and atti-
tudes are in part determined by inner nature. For the most
part, however, they may be radically modified and changed
through the influence of the social environment and through
training. Hence it is that, even though we assume the es-
sential equality of the sexes in all mental capacities at birth,
the marked differences in the treatment and training ac-
corded boys and girls before they enter the secondary
school result in very important differences in the interests
and attitudes of boys and girls in the secondary school. To
this consideration must be added two further facts of im-
portance. Interests and attitudes are determined as well by
the probable character of the lives which boys and girls will
follow after leaving the secondary school as by the training
which they receive before and in the secondary school. That
those interests are in part quite different for boys and girls is
too obvious to require comment. The same may be said of
their needs in life after the secondary school. The second
fact of importance is that interests are for the most part
somewhat general until exercised along special lines and
therefore highly modifiable so that they are more amenable
to the force of education than are the mental processes.

Differences in mental abilities between boys and girls in
the secondary school are probably quite negligible. Differ-
ences in interests and attitudes are great and important.
Whether or not boys and girls in the secondary school should
be taught and trained alike or differently will depend on the
degree to which we wish them to be kept alike or be made
more alike and the degree to which we wish them to be kept
or made more unlike. Here Thorndike's comment is in
point:

By way of preface to an account of sex differences it is well to
note that their existence does not necessarily imply in any case the

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 115

advisability of differences in school and home training, and on the
other hand, that even if the mental make-up of the sexes were
identical it might still be wisest to educate them differently. It is
true that a difference of two groups in a mental trait will theoreti-
cally involve differences in treatment, but practical considerations
apart from that of developing the highest efficiency in that trait
may outweigh the advantages of the different treatment. . . . LeJ
us note in the second place that the existence of differences need not
imply the need of different training, because those very differences
may have been due to the different training actually received and
might never have appeared had training been alike in the two-
classes. It is folly to argue from any mental condition in an indi-
vidual or class without ascertaining whether it is due to original
nature or to training.1

In certain phases of secondary education we may be sure
that the aim should be to recognize differences between boys
and girls in interests and attitudes by dealing with them in
different ways with the intention of preserving such differ-
ences and fostering them. Such would be the case in con-
nection with vocational interests. In other phases of second-
ary-school work we may be sure that differences already in
evidence should be lessened, if possible, through secondary
education. In any event individual differences among sec-
ondary school pupils in interests and attitudes which are
due to sex must be recognized in almost every phase of
secondary-school work.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. Take the table of age-grade distribution of any secondary school. Find
the per cent each age group in the first year of the school is of the total
number of pupils in that grade. Compare the data with those of Table
XXY. Do the same for pupils in the fourth grade of the school and com-
pare results with those found for the first grade.

2. Make a table of distribution of the grades received by 150 or more high-
school boys in any one subject of study. Do the same for 150 or more
girls and compare with the first table.

1 Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. in, p. 169.

116 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

3. Test the efficacy of promotion in the secondary school as selecting pupils
by measuring the results of any general test, e.g., an "opposites test."
(Cf. Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, pp. 44S--46.)
— 4. Make a list of all the differences in mental traits you believe exist be-
tween secondary-school pupils of different races or nationalities. Indi-
cate which of those you believe are due to biological heredity and which
are due to social heredity or other environmental influence.

'-sS. What important problems arise for secondary education out of differ-
ences in social heredity among the pupils?

6. What important problems for secondary education arise out of other
phases of environmental influence?

r- 7. Make a list of all the differences in mental traits you believe exist be-
tween boys and girls of secondary-school age. Indicate which of them
you believe are due to original nature and which to environment and
training.

8. In what ways does the factor of individual differences affect the
general organization and administration of the public secondary school?

9. In what ways does the factor of individual differences affect the sub-
ject-matter, teaching methods, and discipline of the secondary school?

10. Compare the relative standing of the same pupils in three different
subjects of study by giving each pupil a ranking according to his posi-
tion in the class (1st, 2d, etc.). How many pupils maintain the same
relative position in all three subjects? How many fall in the same fifth
of each class?

11. Make a study of the occupational interests of pupils hi each grade of
any secondary school.

12. Make a study of the subject interests of secondary-school pupils.

13. How may the problem of adapting instruction to individual differences
be attacked in the secondary school?

SELECTED REFERENCES

Courtis, S. A., in Report of the Committee on School Inquiry, Board of Esti-
mate and Apportionment, New York City, vol. i, pp. 433-527.

Gray, C. T., Variations in the Grades of High-School Pupils.

Holley, C. E., "The Relationship between Persistence in School and
Home Conditions," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the
Study of Education, part u.

King, I., The High-School Age, pp. 154-205.

Mayo, M. J., The Mental Capacity of the American Negro, Archives of Psy-
chology, no. 28, especially pp. 12jf.

Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, chaps, v-vi.

Thirteenth Census of the United States (1910), vol. i, especially pp. 125-2461
781-1016, 1097-1127.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 117

Thompson, H. B., Psychological Norms in Men and Women, University of
Chicago Contributions to Philosophy, Pychology, and Education, vol. rv,
no. 1.

Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. m, part H.

Thorndike, E. L., Principles of Teaching, pp. 68-109.

Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of the Elimination of Students in Public Second-
ary Schools of New York City, pp. 22-83.

Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, passim.

Woodworth, R. S., "Racial Differences in Mental Traits," Science, vol.
xxxi, pp. 171-86.

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION: ITS CHARACTER
AND CLASSIFICATION

I. THE DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS: RETARDATION AND
ELIMINATION

31. Some illustrative figures. About a million and a half
children in the United States are receiving some form of
secondary education at the present time. Of that number
about a million and a third are enrolled in the public second-
ary schools. Of the total population one individual in about
every sixty-nine is attending a secondary school and one in-
dividual in about every seventy-seven is attending a public
secondary school. More than one half of the children be-
tween the ages of fourteen and eighteen are attending school.
These figures indicate a marked development of secondary
education within the past two or three decades.

In so far as the figures in Table XL VIII may be accepted
as correctly representing the facts of the case they indicate
that within a period of twenty-five years the number of public
secondary schools more than quadrupled, the number of pu-
pils enrolled in the public secondary schools increased more
than sixfold, and the number of teachers engaged therein
increased more than sevenfold. From these facts certain con-
clusions may be drawn: (a) The figures indicate an increase
in the number of pupils receiving the benefit of secondary
education unparalleled in any other country. Critics of the
American secondary school should bear in mind the tremen-
dous adjustments in organization and administration re-
quired by the influx of great numbers of pupils into the

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 119
TABLE XLVHI*

1890-91

1900-01

1910-11

1914-15

Public secondary schools
Number of schools

2,771

6,318

10,234

11,674

Number of pupils

211,596

541,730

984,677

1,328,984

Number of teachers

8,270

21,778

45,167

62,519

Pupils per 1,000 population.

Private secondary schools
Number of schools

3.4
1,714

7.1
1,892

10.9
1,979

12.9

2,248

Number of pupils

98,400

108,221

130,649

155,044

Number of teachers

6,231

9,775

12,073

14,026

Pupils per 1,000 population.

All secondary schools
Number of schools

1.6
4,485

1.4
8,210

1.4
12,213

1.5

13,922

Number of pupils

309,996

649,953

1,115,326

1,484,028

Number of teachers .

14,501

31,553

57,240

76,545

Pupils per 1,000 population.

5.0

8.5

12.3

14.4

* Compiled from Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n,
p. 449. The figures given in the Commissioner's Reports are to some extent faulty, especially
for the earlier dates, because of incomplete returns.

secondary school within a comparatively short time. Those
adjustments have by no means yet been completed. (6) A
specific instance of the difficulties arising in this connection
may be found in the difficulty of providing teachers and
accommodations to meet the developed needs, (c) The great
increase in the number of secondary-school pupils is in part
the result and in part the cause of the extension of the cur-
ricula to meet the diversified needs of different groups of
pupils, (d) It is indicative of the need for further adjust-
ments. Pupils of types not attending the secondary school
before 1890 now are enrolled in large numbers, (e) In 1890
more than one third of the secondary schools in the country
were private schools and they enrolled nearly one third of
all secondary-school pupils. In 1915 the per cent of private

120 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

secondary schools had fallen to about sixteen per cent of all
secondary schools and the per cent of pupils attending those
schools had fallen to about ten. The increasing dominance
of the public secondary school over the private school is
gratifying to believers in a democratic school system.

32. The distribution of pupils by schools. In discussing
problems of secondary education in terms of the public
schools one is apt to err in estimating the size of the "aver-
age" secondary school. It is well to keep in mind the con-
ditions illustrated by the data presented in the following
table:

TABLE XLIX. PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND PUPILS nsr
1914-15 *

In cities of

In other

In all

communities

Number of schools

990

10,684

11,674

Number of pupils

662,004

666,980

1,328,984

Number of teachers

25,509

37,010

62,519

Average number teachers per school. .

25.8

3.5

5.4

Average number pupils per teacher. . .

26.0

18.0

21.3

Average number of pupils per school.

668.7

62.4

113.9

* Compiled from data given in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education
(1916), vol. ii, pp. 449, 456, 457.

Of all pupils hi the public secondary schools of the coun-
try about one half are in schools the average enrollment of
which is sixty-two pupils with three or four teachers, one
for every eighteen pupils. The other half attend schools the
average enrollment of which is six hundred and sixty-nine
pupils with 'twenty-six teachers, one for every twenty-six
pupils. It is obvious that the secondary education which can
be provided for the first group is necessarily limited by the

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 121

small number of pupils attending any single school and by
the correspondingly small teaching force. This factor of size
of school is of particular importance in connection with
problems connected with the differentiation of curricula,
vocational education, and effective supervision of teaching.
One of the most important, if not the most important,
problems of secondary education in this country is that of
providing anything like equality of educational opportunity
in the small high school.

33. The distribution of pupils by grades. By grades the
total secondary-school population is distributed as indicated
hi the following table.

TABLE L. PERCENTAGES OF ALL PTTPILS IN THE PUBLIC SECONDARY
SCHOOLS IN THE VARIOUS GRADES*

Grades

1907-08

1908-09

1909-10

1910-11

1911-12

1912-13

1913-14

1914-15

I..

43.26

43.28

42.89

42.79

41.73

40.94

40.79

40.86

II. ..

27.16

26.88

27.10

26.73

27.08

26.94

26.74

26.69

III...

17.85

17.83

17.97

18.21

18.63

18.46

IV...

11.73

12.01

12.18

12.51

12.98

13.49

13.84

13.99

* Compiled from data given in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education
(1916), vol. u. p. 448.

It should be noted that a slight but favorable change has
taken place within recent years in that larger proportions of
the pupils are found in the third and fourth grades. This
probably means that the retention of pupils through the
high-school course has improved somewhat within the past
few years.

In terms of the number of pupils found in the first grade
of the high school the proportions are as indicated in the
following table:

122 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE LI. PERCENTAGES THE NUMBER OF PUPILS FOUND IN
EACH GRADE is OF THE FIRST- YEAR ENROLLMENT*

Grades

1907-08

1908-09

1909-10

1910-11

1911-12

1912-13

1913-H

19H-15

I...

100.0

II...

62.8

62.1

63.2

62.5

64.9

65.8

65.6

65.3

III...

41.3

41.2

41.6

42.0

43.6

45.5

45.6

45.2

IV...

27.1

27.8

28.4

29.2

31.1

33.0

33.9

34.2

* Compiled from the same source.

Here again the improvement in conditions after 1908
should be noted.

The relatively small numbers of pupils in the second,
third, and fourth grades of the public secondary school at
once attract attention and call for explanation. Three fac-
tors are involved. Larger numbers of pupils begin their
secondary education each successive year both as a result of
the actual increase in population and because of the increas*.
ing appeal of the secondary school. Some pupils fail of pro-
motion, remaining to swell the size of the lower class and to
decrease the size of the upper class. In the third place, pupils
leave school before the secondary-school course is finished,
thus decreasing the number of pupils in each successive
grade. The last two factors will be considered below. The
first factor of increased secondary-school population may be
determined in part 1 by comparing the per cents that pupils
in the second, third, and fourth grades were of the number
of pupils respectively in the first grade one, two, and three
years before, with proper correction for the differing num-
bers of schools reporting in the various years. This is illus-
trated in the following table: .

Retardation being assumed fairly constant for the period considered.

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 123
TABLE LIE*

777

Graduated

'Class" of 1910. .

100.0%

61.1%

42.5%

28.8%

28.7%

'Class" of 1911..

100.0

65.3

42.9

32.3

31.4

'Class" of 1912..

100.0

62.2

41.4

32.8

31.4

'Class" of 1913..

100.0

67.0

46.6

35.4

34.1

'Class "of 1914..

100.0

64.7

45.5

35.6

33.2

* Compiled, with allowance for the increased number of schools reporting, from Report
of the United States Commissioner of Education (1914), vol. n, p. 408. The table should be
interpreted thus: In 1906-07 there were 288,748 pupils in the first grades of 7624 schools
reporting. In 1907-08 from 8960 schools 209,265 pupils were reported to be in the second
grades, an average per school of 23.4 pupils. At that rate 7624 schools would have had
178,402 pupils in the second grade in 1907-08, which is 61 . 1 per cent of the 288,748 pupils
enrolled in the first grades of 7624 high schools.

Even were exact data available concerning the factor of
increased population annually it is probable that the figures
given would not be changed materially. Hence the explana-
tion of the small proportions of pupils in the second, third,
and fourth grades of the public secondary school is likely to
be found in the factors of retardation and elimination.

34. Retardation and acceleration. Pupils are said to be
retarded when they are over age for the grade in which they
are enrolled. The cause may be late entry into the school or
failure to be promoted at any stage of the elementary school
or of the secondary school. Pupils are said to be accelerated
when they are under age for the grade in which they are
found. The cause may be early entry into school or rapid
promotion at any stage. Whether a pupil is to be considered
over age, of normal age, or under age obviously depends on
the standard which is taken as the "normal age." Com-
monly a two-year span is taken, assuming ages 6-7 for the
first grade of the elementary school, 14-15 for the first grade
of the four-year high school, 15-16 for the second, 16-17 for
the third, and 17-18 for the fourth.

124 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Figures for the amount of retardation and acceleration in
the public secondary schools of the country at large are
lacking. However, in as much as retardation at any one
point in the school system affects the work of all successive
grades the data presented hi the following table for schools
in general (elementary and secondary) are important.

TABLE LUL MEDIAN PERCENTAGES OF THE WHOLE NUMBER
OF BOYS OR GIRLS WHO WERE OF NORMAL AGE, OVER AGE, OR
UNDER AGE (1908) *

1SS cities 0/85,000
population or over

186 cities of les» than
25,000 population

Boys

Girl*

Boys

Girls

Of normal age

20
10
5

2
38

60
18
9
3
1
32
4

54
20
11

4
2
38

58
18
8
3
1
36
5

1 vear over age

2 years over age

3 years over age

4 years over age

Total over age

Total under age

* Strayer, G. D., Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges, Bureau of Education
Bulletin (1911), no. 6, p. 103. Normal age defined as 6-7 for first grade, etc. For an excellent
later study see Berry, C. S., A Study of Retardation, Acceleration, Elimination, and Repetition
in Two Hundred Twenty-five Towns and Cities of Michigan.

As indicated by the figures in this table Strayer's investi-
gation showed clearly that between fifty-five and sixty per
cent of the pupils in the public schools (elementary and
secondary) are of normal age, about one third or a little over
are below the age where they might be expected to be accord-
ing to their age, and less than five per cent are in classes
beyond those of children of their age. The majority of those
reported accelerated were so because of early entrance into
school. That a considerable proportion of children retarded
was so retarded because of late entry into the schools is indi-

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 125

cated by the fact that a relatively large per cent of children
of ages 6-9 do not attend school. They will enter school late
and be retarded from the start.

TABLE LIV. PERCENTAGES OF CHILDREN OF CERTAIN AGE

GROUPS ATTENDING SCHOOL (1910) *

1-year span

2-year span

3-year span

Age

Per cent

Age

Per cent

Age

Per cent

52.1

6- 7

63.3

6- 8

69.6

75.0

7- 8

78.8

7- 9

81.2

82.7

8- 9

84.4

8-10

86.3

86.2

9-10

88.1

9-11

89.1

90.0

10-11

90.6

10-12

90.5

91.2

11-12

90.5

11-13

89.9

89.8

12-13

89.3

12-14

86.6

88.8

13-14

85.0

13-15

79.6

81.2

14-15

75.0

14-16

66.6

68 3

15-16

59.1

15-17

51.2

50.6

16-17

44.0

16-18

36.0

35.3

17-18

28.7

17-19

24.1

22.6

18-19

18.7

14.4

* Table compiled from the data given in Report of the Thirteenth Census (1910), pp. 310-11,
1128.

These figures indicate that from one quarter to one third
of the children enter school later than the age of six. Too
great emphasis should not be placed on the fact that only a
little over one half of the six-year-old children in the country
were in school at the time of the census. Many of those who
were six years old at the time the census was taken (as of
April 15, 1910) undoubtedly were waiting to enter school the
following September. The figures for age 7, however, show
that that fact does not entirely explain the discrepancy
between the number of children six years old and the school
enrollment for that age.

126 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

It will be seen that the factor of retardation raises many
problems for secondary education as it does for education in
general. Among the most important of those problems may
be noted the following, (a) Retardation, when due to late
entry into the school, increases the diversity of age in any
grade, thus increasing the heterogeneity of the pupil group
to be taught. When due to failure of promotion, especially
failure of promotion in the secondary school, it means that
in many classes pupils are found repeating work in the same
groups with pupils beginning it. Special classes for repeaters
are exceptional and possible in large systems only. One
feature of secondary-school work helps out here, the fact
that in the secondary school promotion is more commonly by
subjects and a change of election is possible. The problem
of the "repeater" is far different from the problem of the
beginner, even when the latter is retarded. (&) Retardation
fosters the withdrawal of pupils from the school. When due
to late entry the age factor tends to lessen the amount of
education which many pupils can receive, since economic
factors and other factors affect the amount of time which
many can devote to education, especially after the end of the
compulsory age period. When retardation is due to failure
of promotion there is added to other factors the discourage-
ment attendant on failure, (c) Retardation means greater
expense in the maintenance of the schools. Ayres1 in a study
of sixty-five cities estimated the cost of repeaters to be from
6.5 to 30.3 per cent of all money expended for schools in
those cities. The cost of repeaters in the secondary school is
particularly heavy, since the cost of education per pupil in
the secondary school is considerably higher than in the ele-
mentary school, (d) Perhaps most important of all is the
fact that retarded pupils, whatever be the cause of their
retardation, represent a large economic and social loss.
1 Ayres, L. P., Laggards in Our Schools, pp. 96-97.

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 127

Pupils entering school late and proceeding through the school
at the normal rate must enter on their life's work late with
resulting loss to themselves and to society. Pupils retarded
by non-promotion likewise must enter on their life's work
with the same economic and social loss unless that delay is
caused by native incapacity and the added time in the school
increases their abilities proportionately. It must, of course,
be recognized that a certain proportion of retarded pupils is
to be expected and must arise out of the legitimate selective
function of the secondary school and other divisions of the
school system.

The comparatively small number of pupils who complete
their secondary education in less than the normal time also
raises some important problems. Assuming a chance distri-
bution of abilities among secondary school children in gen-
eral it is to be expected that there are almost as large pro-
portions of relatively bright pupils as relatively dull pupils,
and hence that1 the number of accelerates would more nearly
equal the number of repeaters (though not of retarded
pupils). Since a number of factors tend to lessen ability and
achievement (illness, etc.) without corresponding factors
which may tend to raise ability and achievement, the propor-
tion of accelerates cannot be expected to equal the propor-
tion of repeaters. Such factors cannot, however, explain the
large discrepancy at present found. The cause is probably
to be found in the inflexible machinery of administration.

As retardation represents a large positive loss so the small
amount of acceleration represents a negative loss — a failure
to develop large potential values. It would appear that the
public secondary school is ill-adapted both to the needs of
the duller pupil and to the needs of the brighter pupil. All
our knowledge of individual differences justifies the belief
that a larger proportion of secondary school pupils should
complete their secondary education in less time than that
allotted to the " average " pupil.

128 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

35. The elimination of pupils by grades. By elimination
of pupils is meant their withdrawal before they have com-
pleted the school course. In any school system a certain
amount of elimination is always to be expected as the result
of death, transfer, economic conditions, and the progres-
sively selective function of the educational system. Such fac-
tors cannot, however, explain the great amount of elimina-
tion commonly found in the American public schools. The
amount of elimination for any particular school system is
determined with relative ease, but the amount varies very
greatly. For school systems in general three somewhat
extensive investigations have been made. Thorndike studied
conditions in 23 cities of 25,000 population or over in 1906.

TABLE LV. PERCENTAGES IN THE DIFFERENT GRADES OF THOSE
BEGINNING THE FIRST GRADE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

f^ffj/Ja

Per cent remaining

Per cent eliminated

\jruftf/

Thorn-
dike*

Ayres t

Strayer t

Average

Thorn-
dike*

Ayres f

Strayerj.

Average

I...

(100)

(0)

2...

(100)

(0)

3...

(100)

(0)

4...

(100)

(97)

(0)

(3)

5...

(100)

(93)

(0)

(7)

6...

7...

8...

I..

II...

III...

IV...

* Thorndike, E. L., The Elimination of Pupils from School, Bureau of Education Bulletin
(1907), no. 4, pp. 11, 47.

5 Ayres, L. P., Laggards in Our Schools, p. 71. Estimates from graph.
Strayer, G. D., Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges, Bureau of Education Bul-
letin (1911), no. 5, pp. 6, 135-36. The writer is responsible for the interpretation of the data
there given. There is a certain amount of inconsistency between the graph and the figures
given.' Likewise there is inconsistency between the data given, loc. cit., and that in the Report
of the United States Commissioner of Education (1910), vol. it, p. xxiii.

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 129

Ayres studied conditions in 58 cities in 1908. Strayer stud-
ied conditions in 133 cities of 25,000 population or over and
186 cities of less than 25,000 population — in all 319 cities.
The figures given in the Table LV indicate the general
tendency discovered by those investigators. Those figures
must not be interpreted with exactness since many factors
render them at best only approximate.

These figures can be considered as approximate only since
they are based on data necessarily incomplete and valid
for the time of the investigation only. However, the general
tendency, with some allowance for improvement since those
investigations were made, would indicate that little more
than one third of the pupils who enter school reach the first
grade of the four-year high school and that about one tenth
only complete the course.

Since the particular problem here is that of the secondary
school we may interpret the figures already given hi terms of
those who enter the first grade of the four-year high school.

TABLE LVI. PERCENTAGES EST DIFFERENT GRADES OF THOSE WHO

ENTER THE FlRST GRADE OF THE FOUR-YEAR HlGH SCHOOL *

Per cent remaining

Per cent eliminated

Proportionate per cent
eliminated between grades

Grade

•«

•3

I...

100

• 0

0 )

37-50

II...

50-63

37-50

18-40

III...

30-46

54-70

17-32

IV...

25-33

67-75 '

* Derived from the data given in Table LV.

130 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

On the basis of such figures and those presented in Tables
L-LV it is probably safe to say that of pupils entering the
four-year high school from one half to two thirds reach the
second grade, from one third to one half reach the third
grade, and from one quarter to one third reach the fourth
grade. Of all pupils eliminated during the four-year high-
school course it is probable that about one half are elimi-
nated during or at the close of the first year.1 There is evi-
dence that conditions have improved within the past five
years or so and that present figures are somewhat higher for
retention than those indicated in the tables above for the
secondary school.

Since the work of the secondary school is intimately
affected by the work of the later grades of the elementary

TABLE LVII. PERCENTAGES IN DIFFERENT GRADES OF THOSE

ENTERING THE SEVENTH GRADE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL*

Per cent remaining

Per cent eliminated

Proportionate per cent
eliminated between grades

Grade

§>

1 ! 8

§>

••§

•1

0 I C

•"5

S i -^

"^1

7...

100

19-29

8...

71-81

19-29

20-34

I...

50-62

38-50

37-50

II...

29-35

65-71

18-40

III...

17-29

'83

71-83

17-32

IV...

14-22

78-86 '

* Derived from the data given in Table LV.

1 Counts, G. S., A Study of the Colleges and High Schools of the North
Central Association. Bureau of Education Bulletin (1915), no. 6, p. 46.

THE SECONDAKY-SCHOOL POPULATION 131

school and since a closer relation between those grades and
the upper grades appears probable in the near future it is
well to consider this factor in connection with elimination
in grades seven and eight of the elementary school. (Table
LVII.)

It is to be noted that the largest proportionate elimination
is found between the first and second grades of the high
school. School conditions foster a relatively high amount of
elimination between the last grade of the elementary school
and the first grade of the high school. Nevertheless the
amount of elimination at that point is smaller proportion-
ately than the amount between the first and second grades
of the secondary school. It is not improbable that the large
amount of elimination found at that point is largely due to
the difficulty of transition from the elementary school to
the secondary school, the inability of the pupil to readjust
himself to the markedly different conditions in the high
school leading to failure hi work and ultimate withdrawal.
A glance at such figures as are presented in Table II, will
show that compulsory attendance laws affect grades 7 and
8 even more than grade I.

36. The elimination of pupils by age. Nothing is more
certain than that the older the school pupil becomes the
stronger is the force of those economic and social influences
which ultimately will remove him from the school. Up to
the age of fourteen the public schools hold their pupils well,
aided by compulsory attendance laws. After that age is
reached pupils leave school in great numbers. In 1910,
according to the Thirteenth Census returns 90.9 per cent
of all thirteen-year-old children were attending school, 85.3
per cent of the fourteen-year-olds, 75 per cent of the fifteen-
year-olds, 58.9 per cent of the sixteen-year-olds, and 42.9 per
cent of the seventeen-year-olds. These facts suggest one of
two things : (1) that the compulsory attendance laws be raised
without the privilege of employment certificates to the age

132 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

100
90
80

?70
.
« 60

« 50

&*°

a.
30

SO
10
0

*""

'\
N.A

\.\

\»
M

\ >

H^
X

In grade 188 4667 8 I II mi?
FIGURE L. ILLUSTRATING TABLE LV

100
90

I80

3 7°

«. 60

40
80
80

10
n

•

A
%
i

%
\
\

*•$

"-..

In grade

FIGURE M. ILLUSTRATIKG TABLE LVI

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 133

LUU

90
80
70
00
SO
40
30
20
10
0

\ ^

* \

-3

*"•

lagrada 7 8 I II IK

FIGURE N. ILLUSTRATING TABLE LVII

of sixteen; or (2) that opportunity to receive some of the
benefits of secondary education be provided for pupils below
the age of fourteen. The latter plan is a part of the scheme
for the reorganization of secondary education recommended
in later chapters.

When elimination by age is brought into comparison with
elimination by grade in the secondary school it is found that
the older pupils are on entrance to the school the earlier and
more rapidly they are eliminated. This is seen from the
results of studies by Van Denburg (Table LV1II) and
by others. The meaning of the figures hi Table LVIII is
obvious.

The amount of elimination at different ages in New York
City was found by Van Denburg to be as indicated in
Table LIX. The figures indicate percentages of the total
number eliminated.

134 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE LVlII. ELIMINATION BY AGE AND GRADE IN NEW YORK
CITY HIGH SCHOOL*

Age at
entrance

Per cent eliminated during the

Retarded
(per cent)

Graduated
(per cent)

Staying 4
years
(per cent)

Total
eliminated
(per cent)

1st year

&d year

3d year

4th year

Below 13
13

19
31

44
47

31
17
20
21
30

3
10
13

5
9

6
8
6
9
4

19
14
15
14
6

22
20
10

7
4

41
34
25
21
10

59
66
75
79
90

16.

* Compiled and arranged from data given by Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of the Elimina-
tion of Students in Public Secondary Schools of New York City, p. 91. In the table 13 years
means 13 years, 0 months, to 13 years, 11 months, etc.

TABLE MX f

Per cent eliminated at the age of

Median age on leaving

Boys..
Girls..

0.4
0.0

1.1

0.5

13.6
12.0

21.3

27.4

26.9
26.4

20.3
21.4

11.2

7.8

4.5
3.8

0.7
0.5

0.0
0.2

14 years, 7.3 months
14 " 5.4 "

Both..

0.1

0.7

12.7

24.9

26.6

21.0

9.2

4.1

0.6

0.1

14 6.3 "

| Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 91. Per cents calculated and table arranged by the
writer.

37. Elimination and home conditions. The relation be-
tween home conditions and elimination is very close in all
probability. Such conditions are, of course, too complex
and variable to permit anything like complete analysis.
Certain features have been measured by Van Denburg,
King,1 Holley, and others. Some of their findings are sug-
gestive here.

1 King, I., The High-School Age, pp. 154-84.

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 135

(1) Financial conditions and elimination: Van Denburg
investigated the amount of elimination found in various
groups of pupils selected and classified on the basis of family
income as measured by the monthly rental paid.

TABLE LX*

Monthly
rented

Per cent eliminated during the

Retarded
(per cent)

Graduated
(per cent)

Staying 4
years
(per cent)

Total
eliminated
(percent)

1ft year

Zdyear

3d year

4th year

$10. .

41
41
39
31

19
21
17
28

3
8
11

9
10
8
4

9
8
3
15

19
12

22
15

28
20
25
30

72
80
75
70

$15

$20

Over $20.

* Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 111.

Van Denburg states: "On the whole the economic status of
these pupils (so far as it is shown by the monthly rental)
seems to be only a slight factor in the determination of
length of stay in the high school." l Holley, basing his con-
clusions on a study of rental value of home, personal prop-
erty assessment, and real assessment, for parents of high-
school children in Urbana, Illinois, claims that there is a
fairly high correlation between the economic status of the
family and persistence in the school.2

(2) Size of family: According to Van Denburg a pupil
having no younger brother or sister stands a somewhat bet-
ter chance of staying in school longer. His figures, however,
are by no means conclusive evidence.

1 Van Denburg. J. K., op. cit., p. 113.

2 Holley, C. E., "The Relationship Between Persistence in School and
Home Conditions," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study
of Education, part n, especially pp. 55-62.

136 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE LXI *

Having or

Per cent eliminated during the

without
younger
brother or
sister

Retarded
(per cent)

Graduated
(per cent)

Staying 4
years
(per cent)

Total
eliminated
(per cent)

1st year

Sd year

3d year

4th year

Having. . .

Without.. .

* Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 93. Calculated and arranged by the writer.

(3) Nationality of father: Apparently little can be inferred
from the data presented by Van Denburg concerning the
nationality of the father.

TABLE LXIIf

Nationality
of father

American..
German. . .
Russian. . .

Irish

All..

t Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 96. Calculated and arranged by the writer.

Such data are quite inadequate as a basis for conclusions.
(4) Occupation of father: Holley's investigation indicates
that expectancy of stay in the high school is greater for
pupils whose fathers are engaged in professional and com-
mercial occupations and less for those pupils whose fathers
are engaged in artisan trades, in semi-skilled, and in un-
skilled occupations.1

1 Holley, C. E., op. cit., pp. 19, 75-78.

Per cent eliminated during the

Retarded
(per cent)

Graduated
(per cent)

Staying 4
years
(per cent)

Total
eliminated
(per cent)

1st year

Zd year

3d year

$h year

24 '

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 137

(5) Education of parents: Holley's investigation also indi-
cates that there is a close correlation between the amount of
education received by parents and the stay of children in
the high school.1

38. Elimination, early intention, and early promise.
Many boy3 and girls (together with their parents) have little
faith that a secondary-school course will much benefit them
in the life to which they look forward. This is clearly seen
from the data presented in the two tables following.

TABLE LXHI. "Do YOU BEGAKD A HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE AS

NECESSARY FOR THE REALIZATION OF YOUR PLANS FOR THE
FUTURE?"*

Answer to the
question

Per cent eliminated during the

Retarded
(per
cent)

Gradu-
ated (per
cent)

Staying
4 years
(per
cent)

Total
elimi-
nated
(per
cent)

1st year

Sd year

3d year

4th year

"Yes":
Boys

22
26

53
48
49

42
41

19
18

23
20
21

29
18

11
12
12

7
8

8
11
10

14
9
11

2
5
4

2
3

9
26
18

9
10
10

9
17
14

17
13
15

2
10

11
10

26
39
33

20
18

74
61
67

89
80
82

80
73

Girls

Both

"No":
Boys

Girls

Both

"Undecided":
Boys

Girls

Both

* Calculated and arranged from Van Denburg, op. cit., pp. 104-05.

If, at the beginning of his high-school course, a boy ex-
pects to complete the course, on the basis of Van Denburg's
finding for New York City, the chances are approximately
even that he will be eliminated in the first year, in the second

1 Holley, C. E., op. cit., pp. 28-32, 39-53.

138 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
TABLE LXIV. "Do YOU EXPECT TO COMPLETE YOUR COUBSE?" *

Answer to the
question

Per cent eliminated during the

Retarded
(per
cent)

Gradu-
ated (-per
cent)

Staying
4 years
(per
cent)

Total
elimi-
nated
(per
cent)

1st year

Sd year

3d year

4th year

"Yes":
Bo vs. .

25
18
21

72
71

49
44
46

20
17
18

16
15
15

26
25
25

12
12
12

6
3

9
11
10

13
7
10

2
2
2

3
6
5

2
5
3

4
8
7

16
18
17

2
4
3

9
5

30
46
39

4
9
6

'13
13
14

70
54
61

96
91
94

87
87
86

Girls

Both

"No"
Boys

Girls

Both

"Undecided":
Bovs

Girls

Both

* Calculated and arranged from Van Denburg, op. cii., p. 108.

year, or that he will remain four years. If, on the other hand,
he does not expect to complete the course, the chances are
nearly three to one that he will leave school during the first
year, are nearly nine to one that he will leave during the
first or second year, and are only one in twenty-five that he
will stay four years. If he is undecided whether he will
remain four years or not the chances are even that he
will leave during the first year, are three to one that he will
leave during the first or second year, and are about one hi
eight that he will remain four years.

Early promise as indicated by records made during the
first half year of school work affords a fairly good measure of
the length of time pupils will remain in the secondary school.
This has been measured by Van Denburg with the results
indicated in the following table.

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 139

TABLE LXV*

Average
mark 1st
half year

Per cent eliminated during the

Retarded
(per cent)

Graduated
(per cent)

Staying 4
years (per
cent)

Total
eliminated
(per cent)

1st year

2d year

3d year

4th year

90-100. . .

80- 89. . .

70- 79. . .

60- 69. . .

51- 59. . .

0- 49. . .

* Calculated and arranged from Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 175.

Much the same situation is found when "early promise"
is measured by the teachers' estimates of pupils' ability,
industry, and results. Van Denburg found the following
figures.

TABLE LXVIf

Per cent eliminated during the

Retarded

Gradu-

Staying

Total
elimi-

Division of class group

(per

ated (per

It years

nation

Istyr.

Sdyr.

4th yr.

cent)

(per
cent)

Estimated ability:

Highest third . . .

Middle third. . . .

Lowest third. . . .

Estimated industry:

Highest third . . .

Middle third

Lowest third. . . .

Estimated resulte:. .

Highest third . . .

Middle third. . . .

Lowest third. . . .

t Calculated and arranged from Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 149.

140 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Dynes secured data concerning the grades received by
graduates and non-graduates which indicate much the same
condition as that shown by the preceding tables.

TABLE LXVII. GRADES RECEIVED BY PUPILS*

Grades

Graduates

Non-graduates

Total per cent

Number

Per cent

Number

Per cent

Graduates

Nan-graduates

Excellent
Good

2121
8464
4540

1272
1037

85
81
72
64
'40

370
1961
1726
720
1564

15
19

28
36
60

12
49
26

7
6

6
81

27
11
25

Medium
Poor

Failure

* Dynes, J. J., "The Relation of Retardation to Elimination of Students from the High
School," School Review, vol. xxii, p. 404.

39. The lure of the out-of-school world. Closely related
to the factors considered above is a large number of factors
which seriously affect the stay of pupils in school. In the
upper grades of the system the school must constantly wage
an uphill fight against the increasing power of the "outside"
world to draw boys and girls out of the school into occupa-
tional life. One of the most powerful factors producing early
elimination in the school arises from the world-old unwilling-
ness of the individual to forego a present lesser good for the
sake of a later greater good. The error is frequently made of
assuming that it is primarily the desire to engage in active
life which draws boys and girls out of school. That element
is undoubtedly present in many cases. The real element in-
volved in most cases, however, is not work but the advan-
tages which come from engaging in an occupation and be-
coming a wage earner — the securing and spending of money
and the increased freedom and privileges which come when

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 141

the boy or girl becomes a somewhat financially independent
individual. The boy or girl in school sees his former school
fellow able to enjoy many privileges and to attain a degree
of independence not granted to himself. The stimulus to go
and do likewise is in many, many cases irresistible.

When the influence of the world without the school is
rapidly growing, the character of the education provided in
the school (especially in grades seven and eight) does not
afford a very strong counteracting influence. The theory
may, perhaps, be justified that the character of much of the
work of the middle grades of the school system itself in many
cases becomes a very effective eliminating factor.
St

Yes

Undecided
No

1st year

Sd year

4th year

Graduated

74%

56%

44%

33%

15%

FIGURE O" ILLUSTRATING THE EXPECTANCY OF STAY IN THE
HIGH SCHOOL

142 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

40. Expectancy of stay in the secondary school. The
length of time different groups of pupils can be expected to
remain in the public high school may be estimated to a cer-
tain degree by the figures for elimination which have beer
presented in the preceding tables. On the basis of similai
figures procured for any individual secondary school it is
possible to undertake some diagnosis of the probable condi-
tions to be found in that school one, two, or three years
later.1 This is clearly true with respect to groups of pupils.

80.

Un4eti<U<L

0 i-

Yes

Undecided
No

1st year 2d year
79% 61%

51 29

28 13

Sd year Ifli year

49% 39%

19 14

9 7

Graduated
17%
7
3

FIGURE P. ILLUSTRATING THE EXPECTANCY OF STAY IN THE
HIGH SCHOOL

Measured by answers to the question: "Do you expect to complete the high-school
course?" Read as follows: Of those pupils who answered 'Yes" to this question 79 per cent
remained through the first year, 61 per cent through the second year, 49 per cent through
the third year, 89 per cent through the fourth year, and 17 per cent were graduated. (Cf.
Table LXIV and Van Denburg, op. cit., p. 108.)

1 Cf. Thorndike, E. L., "Educational Diagnosis," Science, vol. xxxvu,
pp. 133-12, 258: Strayer, G. D., and Thorndike, E. L., Educational Admin-
istration, pp. 46-53.

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION

143

It is also to some extent true of the diagnosis of individual
school careers. The fact that a boy or girl belongs to any
one group whose school course may be prophesied with
considerable confidence does not, of course, necessarily imply
that the school history of that individual boy or girl will be
that of the group. When, however, an individual boy or girl
is found to belong to a number of groups all of which indi-
cate the same general expectancy, the chances must be con-
sidered great that his probable stay in the school will be
thereby approximately determined.

so
70

£
£ 10
A.

/O
Oi

'*Je»"-s

/ 1 3 ears

•

"?;;;;

/6 fta.™

"J
re

c
C

£.

cx.

TeKi

years
years
years
years
years

1st year 2d year 3d year Ijth year Graduated
81% 50% 47% 41% 22%
69 52 42 34 20
64 44 31 25 10
56 35 30 21 7
53 23 14 10 4

FIGURE Q. ILLUSTRATING THE EXPECTANCY OF STAY IN THE
HIGH SCHOOL

Measured by the age of entrance into the high school. Read as follows: Of pupils under
13 years of age at entrance 81 per cent remained through the first year, 50 per cent through
the second year, 47 per cent through the third year, 41 per cent through the fourth year,
and 22 per cent were graduated. (C'f. Table LVII and Van Denburg, J. K.,op. cit., p. 91.)

144 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

In Figures O to S are indicated the expectancies of stay
as determined in New York City schools as derived from
data secured by Van Denburg.1 Such figures and graphs
suggest a valuable method of diagnosing the probable school
careers of groups of pupils and to a less extent of individual
pupils.

/Off

1st year

Sd year

4th year

Graduated

94%

82%

70%

64%

53%

90-100%
80- 89
70- 79
60- 69
60- 59
0- 49

FIGURE R. ILLUSTRATING THE EXPECTANCY OF STAY IN THE
HIGH SCHOOL

Measured by grades received during the first half-year. Read as follows: Of pupils receiv-
ing an average grade of 90-100 per cent during the first half-year, 94 per cent remained
through the first year, 84 per cent through the second year, 70 per cent through the third
year, 64 per cent through the fourth year, and 53 per cent were graduated. (Cf. Table LXV
and Van Denburg, 3. K., op. ••/,'.. p. 175.)

1 The writer is responsible for the graphs.

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 145

Age
at

Entran

:hool f
mrse 1 T,
>rted \ Ul
jsart (

mcy f

.tin. U
>uree ^

i£

f W

•U

Yes
idecided
No.

Yes

ndecided
No.

1st Third
2d Third
3d Third

90-100?
80-89
70-79
60-69
50-59
0-49

Chances are
even that

Half yean, fSS£?
12S4ES7S half years

Median
Expectancy

8.8
3.0
.2.2
1.9

4.3
2.4

1.6

4.9
1.9
0.8

6.9
2.7
2.7

4.4
3.1.
1.9

4.9
3.6
1.6

8.0
7.0
.4.5
2.8
1.8
1.2

Expectancy on the basi
Expectancy on of teachers' estimates

basis of grades Results Industry Abi

12345678
.Half years

FIGURE S. ILLUSTRATING MEDIAN EXPECTANCY OF STAY EN THE
HIGH SCHOOL

Measured by various factors. Each vertical line represents the end of one half-year term.
Read as follows: Of pupils who entered high school at the age of 13, one half remained less
than 3.8 half-years and one half remained more than 3.8 half-years. The chances are there-
fore one to one that any pupil entering at that age would remain 3.8 half years. (Cf. Tables
LVII, LXI1I, LXIV, LXV, LXVI.)

146 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

II. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS

41. The classification of secondary-school pupils. For
purposes of organization and administration pupils in the
public secondary schools are best classified on the basis of
their expectancy of stay in the school and their probable
future activities after leaving. Two general groups for
initial consideration are (i) those who are destined to com-
plete the course, and (ii) those who are destined to leave the
secondary school before the completion of the course. Those
who are destined to complete the course may further be
divided into (1) those whose education is to continue beyond
the secondary school, consisting of (a) those who will go to
college, and (6) those who will attend some other institution
of higher education; and (2) those whose formal education
is to end at the close of the secondary-school course. Those
who will not complete the secondary-school course may
be divided into groups of (1) those who will remain not more
than one year, (2) those who will remain one year but not
more than two years, and (3) those who will remain two
years but not more than three years. It is obvious that the
needs of these various groups differ noticeably and that their
different needs call for forms of education differing in some
respects. The composition of the several groups and their
proportionate importance are considered in the following
sections.

42. Pupils completing the course. The secondary school
was largely a school preparing its pupils for higher education
until toward the close of the nineteenth century. During the
last decade of the nineteenth century and the beginning of
the present century there has been a marked increase in the
attendance in the public secondary school of pupils who
were not destined for higher education. As a result there has
been a distinct decrease in the proportion of secondary-school

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 147

pupils destined for higher education, although the gross
number has increased absolutely and in relation to growth in
population. Realization of that fact has led to an under-
estimate by many of the proportion of pupils going to col-
lege or other institutions of higher education from the public
secondary schools. Thus, in 1893 the Committee of Ten
stated that "only an insignificant percentage of the gradu-
ates of these [high] schools go to colleges or scientific
schools," and that statement has been accepted generally
since that time. It is, however, quite false. In 1915, of the
graduates of the public high schools of the country, 35.85
per cent were prepared for college and 16.27 per cent were
prepared for other higher institutions, making a total of
approximately one half of the graduates of our public high
schools prepared for higher education in that year.1 For
several years the proportion has been approximately the
same.

If we assume that approximately one third of pupils
entering the first grade of the high school are graduated,
the figures above given would indicate that about one sixth
of the pupils who enter the secondary school are destined to
enter some higher institution and that about one sixth are
destined to close then- education at the end of the second-
ary-school course. Since about one third of the graduates
of the public secondary schools go to college, approximately
one ninth of those who enter the secondary school must be
destined to go to college. On the same basis approximately
one eighteenth of those who enter the secondary school
must be considered as destined to enter some higher in-
stitution other than the college — for the most part the
normal schools.

Since about two thirds of those who enter the first grade

1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. u,
pp. 454-55.

148 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

of the four-year high school reach the second grade, and since
about one third of those who enter the first grade of the high
school are destined to graduate, it follows that about one half
of all pupils in the second grade of the high school are des-
tined to graduate. From these figures we find that of all
pupils in the second grade of the high school approximately
one quarter will enter higher institutions, about one sixth
entering college and about one twelfth going to other insti-
tutions. By a similar line of reasoning we may estimate
figures for the third grade of the high school. Figures for the
fourth grade for all practical purposes may be assumed to

TABLE LXVIII. PERCENTAGES OF DIFFERENT GROUPS OF PUPILS
IN THE VARIOUS GRADES OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL *

Groups

Grades

III

I Destined to be graduated

33.3
16.6
11.1
5.5
16.7
66.6
33 3

50.0
25.0
16.6
8.4
25.0
50.0

66.6
33.3
22.2
11.1
33.3
33.4

100.0
50.0
33.3
16.7
50.0

II. Pupils destined not to be graduated

2. Staying more than 1 year, not more than two . . .
3. Staying more than 2 years, not more than three.

20.0
10.0

35.0
14.0

33.4

* The reader is warned against interpreting the figures as anything more than a reason-
able estimate true for the whole country. Conditions in any particular community may differ
widely from that indicated by the figures given. An actual study of the figures presented in
the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for the period 1909-13 gave the
following figures:

Groups

Grades

111

T
£•

p
i.

34
17
12
5
16
65

2
5

S
1
8

51.1
26.1
17.9
8.2
24.9
48.9

73
37
25
11
35
26

4
7
7
8
8
6

96.7
49.5
33.9
15.6

47.2
3.3

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 149

approximate those for graduates. Summarizing we may
suggest Table LXVIII as indicating the approximate pro-
portions of pupil-groups in the different grades of the four'
year public high school for the country at present.

*•*•

Criie

SO CO
— *-: 1—

£_3<

-&-

3-1

FIGURE T. ILLUSTRATING THE PROPORTION EACH GROUP is OF THE
TOTAL NUMBER IN THE HIGH-SCHOOL CLASSES — 1913-14

Shaded portion for those completing the course:

A. Going to college.

B. Going to some higher institution.

C. Closing their education at the end of the high school.
Unshaded portion for those not completing the course:

1. Those staying one year or less.

2. Those staying more than one year, not more than two years.
S. Those staying more than two years, not more than three years.
4. Those staying more than three years, but not staying four.

It is probable that the large proportion of pupils prepar-
ing for admission to higher education in many high schools
is indicative of the fact that that function of secondary
education is receiving too great attention and that insuffi-
cient attention is being paid to groups of pupils who are

150 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

destined to leave school early or to end their formal educa-
tion with the close of the secondary-school course. This
fact is clearly shown by the fact that in those States where
the percentage of high-school graduates going to higher
institutions is unusually large the per cent which the gradu-
ates are of all pupils in the high schools is relatively small,
the number of high-school pupils in each million of total
population is relatively small, and the number of graduates
to each million of total population is relatively small. This
is shown in the following table.

TABLE LXIX. STATES ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THE LOWEST
TO THE HIGHEST PERCENTAGES OF GRADUATES OF THE HIGH
SCHOOLS GOING TO COLLEGE IN 1911*

Lowest
quarter

Second
quarter

Third
quarter

Highest
quarter

Lower
half

Higher
half

Median per cent of
graduates going to
college

26.00

35.00

42.00

53 00

31 00

47.00

Per cent graduates
were of all pupils in
the high schools
High school pupils to
each million of total
population

13.94
11,548

11.99
12,873

11.18
9,408

10.01
5,977

12.79
12,291

10.74

7,737

Graduates to each mil-
lion of total popula-
tion

1,609

1,543

1,052

598

1,572

830

* Compiled from data given on pages 18-18 of Bulletin (1912) no. 22, of the Bureau of
Education and the Report of the Thirteenth Census (1910). Cf. Inglis, A. J., "High School
Graduates and Preparation for Higher Institutions," School and Society, vol. I, no. 26 (June
26, 1915), p. 933.

43. The distribution of secondary-school graduates. At
least two studies have been made of the distribution of high-
school graduates which are suggestive for our present pur-
pose. The results of those studies are presented in the two
tables following.

THE SECONDAEY-SCHOOL POPULATION 151

TABLE LXX. DISTRIBUTION OF 20,389 GRADUATES FROM 596
HIGH SCHOOLS IN INDIANA, ILLINOIS, IOWA, KANSAS, MICHIGAN,
MINNESOTA, MISSOURI, MONTANA, NEBRASKA, NORTH DAKOTA,
SOUTH DAKOTA, OHIO, OKLAHOMA, WISCONSIN, 1913 *

Occupations

In cities of less than
7500 population-

In cities of more than
7500 population

I nail cities
considered

Number

Percent

Number

Per cent

Number

Percent

College

2,636
437
310
462
743
970
1,775
331

332

689
1,832
583

23.75
3.94
2.79
4.16
6.69
8.74
15.99
2.99

2.99
6.21
16.50
5.25

2,854
325
381
138
741
1,087
1,316
342

143

182
1,076
704

30.72
3.49
4.10
1.49
7.98
11.70
14.17
3.68

1.54
1.96
11.59

7.58

5,490
762
691
600
1,484
2,057
3,091
673

475
871
2,908
1,287

26.9
3.7
3.4
2.9
7.3
10.1
15.1
3.3

2.4
4.3
14.3
6.3

Commercial school . . .
Trades

Farming. .

Normal school

Business

At home

Professions

Domestic Economy,
Agriculture

Teaching

Other occupations. . . .
Unknown

Total

11,000

100.00

9,289

100.00

20,389

100.0

* Arranged from data given by Counts, G. S., A Study of the Colleges and High Schools in
the North Central Association, Bulletin (1915) no. 6 of the Bureau of Education, p. 91.

Of the graduates going to college from 239 out of 333
school reporting, fifty or more per cent were from the high-
est third of the graduating classes.

Noteworthy are the different proportions of those of the
highest standing for the several groups. (Table LXXII.)

Apparently those who went to college and those who
stayed at home after graduation came from the most schol-
arly portion of the class in relatively large proportion.
Apparently those who went to normal school or directly
into teaching came from the average or below average group
of pupils. Apparently also those who went directly into

152 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE LXXI. THE DISTRIBUTION OF HIGH-SCHOOL GRADU-
ATES BT DESTINATION AND HIGH-SCHOOL. STANDING NEW YORK
STATE, 1908*

High-school standing
average

Total
cages

Went to
college

Went to
normal
school

Went to
profes-
sional
school

Went
directly
into
teaching

Went
into
business

Went
into
trade

Stayed
at
home

Totals

738

246

122

117

Per cent .

100.00

33.61

16.60

6.43

15.63

11.70

8 30

5 58

Median rank

81.3

82.8

81.7

78.5

81.7

80.6

79 5

82 3

* Table arranged from data given by Shallies, G. W., "The Distribution of High-School
Graduates after leaving School," School Review, vol. xxi, no. 2 (February, 1913), pp. 86-S7.
Some slight errors of computation in Shallies's tables are corrected here. Apparently about
twenty-four graduates are unaccounted for in his figures.

professional school, into business, and into trade came from
the poorer group in relatively large proportion. This is
shown even more clearly perhaps from the figures given in
Table LXXIH.

THE SECONDAKY-SCHOOL POPULATION 153

TABLE LXXU. PERCENTAGE OP GRADUATES OF DIFFERENT
GRADES OF SCHOLARSHIP ENTERING VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS,
NEW YORK STATE *

Scholarship
group

Total
number
in each
group

Went to
college

Went to
normal
school

Went to
profes-
sional
school

Went
directly
into
teaching

Went
into
business

Went
into
trade

Stayed
at home

84-97
79-85
67-78

227
278
233

41.41
34.89
23.61

13.42
15.11
19.31

1.32
6.50
8.15

18.94
11.51
18.03

9.25
12.23
13.30

3.52
9.71
11.16

7.93
6.12
3.00

67-97

738

33.61

16.60

5.43

15.63

11.70

8.30

5.58

* Tables derived from data given by Shallies, G. W., toe. cit.

TABLE LXXTTT. PERCENTAGE OF GRADUATES ENTERING VARIOUS
OCCUPATIONS FROM DIFFERENT SCHOLARSHIP GROUPS, NEW
YORK STATE f

Scholarship
group

Total
number
in each
group

Went to
college

Went to
normal
school

Went to
profes-
sional
school

Went
directly
into
teaching

Went
into
business

Went
into
trade

Stayed
at home

84-97
79-83
67-78

227
278
233

38.21
39.43
22.36

28.69
34.42
36.89

7.50
45.00
47.50

36.75
27.35
35.90

24.42
39.54
36.04

13.12
44.26
42.62

42.86
40.48
16.66

84-97

738

100.00

t Tables derived from data given by Shallies, G. W., toe. cit.

44. Pupils destined not to complete the course. Approxi-
mately two thirds of the pupils who enter the first grade of
the public secondary school leave school before the close of
the course. About one third of those who enter leave during
the first year or before the beginning of the second year,
about one half leave before the beginning of the third year
and about two thirds leave before the beginning of the last
year. Relatively few pupils leave school during the fourth
year of the course.

154 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

If these figures be correct it follows that of all pupils leav-
ing the secondary school before the completion of the full
course three important groups demand attention in the
organization and administration of the public high school.

(1) Pupils destined to receive not more than one year of
secondary education constitute about one third of all pupils
entering the public secondary school at the present time.
In 1913-14 there were 497,110 pupils in the first grades of
public high schools, about 165,703 of whom were destined
to end then* education at or before the end of the first grade
of the secondary school. This fact demands that the atten-
tion of school authorities be directed along two lines. It
demands first of all that steps be taken to decrease the
number of those who leave school so early by (a) encourag-
ing some to proceed further along courses now offered, or
(6) by providing new forms of education which will encou-
rage many who now drop out to continue further. It de-
mands, secondly, that, for those who must drop out of
school by the close of the first grade of the high school,
secondary education must be provided such that they may
be most benefited by their brief stay in the secondary
school and best fitted for the lives which they must needs
live. It is obvious that those who must leave school thus
early are destined to enter industrial, commercial, agricul-
tural, or household occupations for the most part and to
live corresponding lives.

(2) Pupils destined to remain more than one year but
not more than two years in the secondary school constitute
about one fifth of all pupils entering the first grade and about
one third of all pupils in the second grade of the high school.
In 1913-14 those proportions included about 100,000 pupils
in each of the first and second grades belonging to this
group. Here again the facts demand that school authorities
direct their attention to this group as well as to the group

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 155

of pupils who would receive but one year of high-school
education. While the lives of pupils belonging to this
group may reach a somewhat higher level than the lives of
those who receive but one year of high-school education,
these pupils will be much of the same type and the education
afforded them should differ from the latter more in extent
than in general character. Such pupils are also destined
to enter the industries, business, agriculture, and home-
making for the most part.

(3) Pupils destined to remain more than two years but
not more than three years in the secondary school constitute
approximately ten per cent of the pupils entering the first
grade, approximately fifteen per cent of those in the second .
grade, and approximately one third of those in the third
grade of the secondary school. In 1913-14 those propor-
tions included approximately 50,000 pupils in each of the
first, second, and third grades of the high school. Beyond
doubt many of those pupils could readily be encouraged to
complete the full four years of high-school work. Others,
however, must be provided for much as in the case of the
other two groups considered.

No form of organization and administration of the public
secondary school can be considered satisfactory which does
not have as one important aim provision for these three
groups of pupils so as to provide (a) that larger proportions
of pupils may be encouraged to extend the time spent by
them in the high school, and (6) provide suitable forms of
education for those who must conclude their formal educa-
tion after one, two, or three years of high-school education.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

' — 1. Show how the rapid increase of the secondary school population has
affected the economy of the high school. Illustrate specific failures to
adjust the secondary school to the changed conditions caused by the
increase in number of pupils and changes in their character.

156 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

-x 2. Indicate specific ways in which the secondary school of fifty pupils
with two or three teachers is limited in the facilities which it can pro-
vide the pupils. Do the same for the secondary school of one hundred
pupils with four or five teachers.

3. Compare the average number of pupils per public high school in the
United States for the individual years from 1907-08 to 1914-15. Do the
same for the average number of each of the four grades. (Cf. Report
of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, p. 448.

4. What was the number of children of different school ages in 1910? Is
it true that there are larger numbers of children of a given age each
successive year? (Cf. the Report of the Thirteenth Census (1910), vol. i,
p. 310.)

5. Compare the tables of the age-grade distribution for the high schools of
any two or three cities. Assuming a two-year span for normal age for
each grade, e.g., 14-15 for the first grade of the high school, what are
the relative amounts of retardation and acceleration?

— . 6. What common forms of administrative machinery interfere with rapid
promotion in the public high school?

7. If possible secure data concerning the number of 'repeaters' in any
high school and determine the cost of those repeaters, assuming that each
costs the amount of the per capita cost of the secondary school. The
actual cost would really be much less. Why? Estimate the saving in the
case of accelerates on the same basis.

8. Assuming that the largest age group indicates the number of pupils be-
ginning school each year estimate the elimination for grades of the ele-
mentary and secondary school i-iv for any school system whose age-
grade distribution is available.

— 9. What may be the causes of the apparently great elimination between
grades I and II of the public secondary school. Suggest remedies.

10. For pupils at present in the last grade of the high school secure the
earliest gradings received in their first year of high-school work. Make
a table indicating the per cent of elimination for groups arranged accord-
ing to the different gradings received in those first reports.

11. For any high school consider the pupils belonging to the class which has
recently graduated. From their school records classify them according
to the scheme employed in Table LXVIII. (Compare the tables.)

SELECTED REFERENCES

Ayres, L. P., Laggards in Our Schools.

Berry, C. S., A Study of Retardation, Acceleration Elimination, and Repeti-
tion in the Public Elementary Schools of Two Hundred Twenty-five Towns
and Cities of Michigan : reproduced in part in the Seventy-ninth Annual
Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Michigan
(1915-16).

THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 157

Bliss, D. C., "High-School Failures," Journal of Educational Administra-
tion and Supervision, vol. in, pp. 125-37.

Book, W.F., " Why Pupils Drop Out of High School," Pedagogical Seminary,
vol. xi, pp. 204 ff.

Glement, J. A., "Student Population and Related Problems in High
Schools," Illinois School Survey, pp. 185-222. Illinois State Teachers'
Association (1917).

Counts, G. S., Part n of A Study of the Colleges and High Schools in the North
Central Association, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1915) no. 6, pp. 31 jf.

Dynes, J. J., " Relation of Retardation to Elimination of Students from the
High School," School Review, vol. xxn, pp. 396-406.

Holley, C. E., "The Relationship between Persistence in School and Home
Conditions," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of
Education, part n.

Ruling, R. G., "Failures in the First- Year High School," Educational Re-
view, vol. xx, pp., 463 ff.

Inglis, A. J., "The Distribution of Pupils in the Public High Schools," Ed'
ucational Review, vol. XIAI, pp. 344-50.

Inglis, A. J., " High-School Graduates and Preparation for Higher Institu-
tions, School and Society, vol. i, pp. 932-34.

Johnson, G. R., "Qualitative Elimination in High Schools," School Review,
vol. xviii, pp. 380 ff.

King, I., The High-School Age, pp. 154-205.

King, I., "The Vocational Interests, Study Habits, and Amusements of
Pupils of Certain High Schools in Iowa," School Review, vol. xxn, pp.
165-81.

Koons, G. J., "Vocational Distribution of High School Graduates and of
Pupils Leaving School before Graduation," Educational Administration
and Supervision, vol. in, pp. 358-60.

Lurton, E. E., "The Disintegration of a High School Class," School Review,
vol. xrx, pp. 680 /.

Mitchell, H. E., "The Distribution of High School Graduates in Iowa,
School Review, vol. xxn, pp. 82-90.

Shallies, G. W., "The Distribution of High-School Graduates after Leaving
School," School Review, vol. xxi, pp. 86-87.

Strayer, G. D., Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges, Bureau of
Education, Bulletin (1911) no. 5.

Strayer, G. D., and Thorndike, E. L., Educational Administration, pp. 3-53,
69-73, 165-75.

Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, chaps, i, n.

Thorndike, E. L., The Elimination of Pupils from School, Bureau of Educa-
tion, Bulletin (1907) no. 4.

Thorndike, E. L., "Educational Diagnosis," Science, vol. xxxvn, pp. 133-
42, 258-59.

Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of Elimination of Students in Public Secondary
Schools of New York City.

PART H
THE INSTITUTION AND ITS PURPOSE

CHAPTER V

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
IN AMERICA

45. Three principal periods of development. The history
of secondary education in America is commonly and con-
veniently considered according to the three principal phases
of its development: (1) the Latin grammar school, covering
approximately the colonial period; (2) the academy move-
ment, beginning in the latter half of the eighteenth century
and extending well into the latter half of the nineteenth
century; (3) the public high-school movement, beginning
in the third decade of the nineteenth century, establishing
itself in the last quarter of that century, and continuing up
to the present time. These three movements overlap to a
considerable degree, some Latin grammar schools persisting
long after the academy movement was well under way, and
the academy continuing up to the present to some extent.

The distinction of periods and movements is not based
on institutional changes alone. The institutional changes
themselves were the outcomes of real social factors at work
in American society and consequent modifications in the
conceptions of the function of secondary education. When
the Latin grammar schools of the American colonies became
inadequate for the social needs which developed in the new
country they disappeared and the academy which supplied
education suited to those needs took its place as the domi-
nant institution for secondary education. The academy,
however well suited though it may have been to the frontier
conditions of the early democracy and to the laissez-faire
policy of our early government, was not well suited to our

162 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

later democratic ideals or to later governmental policy.
It therefore gave way to the public high school.

I. THE LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL

46. The Latin grammar school of England. The earliest
secondary schools of this country were modeled on the
Latin grammar schools of England. Unfortunately data
regarding the early Latin grammar school of the American
colonies are so meagre and fragmentary that any exact
analysis of the school is impossible. Such data as we have,
however, show clearly the debt of the Latin grammar school
in this country to its prototype in England. In both coun-
tries the aim of the grammar school was preparation for the
university. The curriculum in both cases was restricted to
the study of the classics. The specific authors read, the spe-
cific books employed, and the methods of teaching involved
in both countries were almost exactly the same. In both
cases the schools were for those few boys who were destined
to go to college or at least belonged to the upper classes.

47. The beginning of secondary education in America.
As early as 1621 a movement was inaugurated to establish
a grammar school at Charles City by the Virginia Company
of London. Definite plans were made for its establishment,
but the Indian massacres of 1622 and the downfall of the
Virginia Company in 1624 ended the movement and there
is no evidence that the school was ever opened. Again in
Virginia a second movement to establish a grammar school
was begun in 1635 when a certain Syms left his estate for
the foundation of a free school. Acceptance of that grant
was not confirmed until seven years later. Subsequently
records refer to that school endowed by Syms as in active
operation and an existing institution claims that some of
the original grant remains as a part of its permanent funds.

48. The Public Latin School in Boston. The first second-
ary school in America, of which we have definite knowledge,
was the Public Latin School founded in Boston in 1635.
It is a fact of no little interest that the colonists from the
beginning devoted special attention to secondary education
and it is possible that secondary education as a public
responsibility would not so easily have gained its way in
America if impetus had not been given to that movement in
early colonial days.

While the Latin grammar school in Boston probably
represented secondary education at its best hi colonial
America and therefore cannot be considered in all respects
as typical of the colonial grammar school, it is not unfair to
consider it as representing at least the general scope and
economy of such institutions.

(a) Control and support: In contrast with the grammar
schools of England, which for the most part were controlled
and supported by the Church, by guilds, or by private endow-
ment, the Boston Public Latin School was established by
the town. Since fees were regularly charged, the school can-
not be said to have been free and public in the present-day
sense. It was, nevertheless, a "town school" and in most
respects justified its name "public." In the case of some
other grammar schools bequests were frequently made to
provide for their support, notably in the case of the gram-
mar schools endowed by Edward Hopkins hi Hartford, New
Haven, and Hadley. In many schools endowments were of
such a character that, while the schools remained "public"
schools in some respects, the immediate control was placed
in the hands of trustees.

(6) Aim : The definite aim of the Boston Public Latin
School was to prepare boys for college (Harvard College
was founded in 1636). This was the general aim of the
Latin grammar schools of England and was the general aim

164 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

of those schools in America. It was explicitly so stated for
the grammar schools of the Massachusetts Bay Colony by
the law of 1647.

(c) Curriculum : The curriculum of the Latin School, until
a very late period (beginning of the nineteenth century), was
almost exclusively classical and consisted in most cases solely
of the study of Latin and Greek. One of the earliest known
complete programs of the Boston Lathi School was that
adopted in 1789. Excerpts pertinent to the present consid-
eration follow, that as complete a view as possible may be
given in brief space.

The System of Public Education, adopted by the Town of Bos-
ton, 15th Octob. 1789. I. That there shall be one school in which
the rudiments of the Latin and Greek languages shall be taught,
and scholars fully qualified for the Universities. That all candi-
dates for admission into this School shall be at least ten years of
age, having previously been well instructed in English Grammar;
that they shall continue in it not longer than four years, and that
they have liberty to attend the public writing Schools at such
hours as the visiting Committee shall direct.
[II-IV deal with lower schools only.]

Votes of the Committee appointed to carry into Execution the
System of public Education adopted by the Town of Boston, 15th
October 1789,

At a meeting of the said Committee, held Decemb. 1, 1789.
VOTED, I. That the Latin Grammar school be divided into four
Classes, and that the following Books be used in the respective
Classes.
1st Class — Cheever's Accidence. Corderius's Colloquies — Latin

and English. Nomenclator, ^Esop's Fables — Latin

and English. Ward's Latin Grammar, or Eutropius.
2d Class — Clarke's Introduction — Latin and English. Ward's

Latin Grammar. Eutropius, continued. Selectee e

Veteri Testamento Historiae, or, Castilio's Dialogues.

The making of Latin, from Garretson's Exercises.
3d Class — Caesar's Commentaries. Tully's Epistles, or Offices.

Ovid's Metamorphoses. Virgil. Greek Grammar.

The making of Latin from King's History of the

Heathen Gods.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 165

4th Class — Virgil, continued. — Tully's Orations. Greek Testa-
ment. — Horace. Homer. — Gradus ad Parnassum.
The making of Latin continued.
[Sections II-IV deal with the lower schools only.]
V. That the following hours be punctually observed hi all the
Schools, viz. From the third Monday in April to the third Monday
in October, the Schools begin at half past 7 o'Clock, A.M. and
continue 'till eleven, and begin at half past 1 o'Clock, P.M. and con-
tinue 'till five. — That from the third Monday in October to the
third Monday in April, the Schools begin at half past 8 o'Clock,
A.M. and continue 'till eleven, and begin at half past 1 o'clock, P.M.
and continue 'till half past four.1

No change was made from the purely classical course of
the Boston Public Latin School until some time between
1814 and 1828 (during the headmastership of Gould), when
arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, algebra, and geography
were introduced. By 1826 declamation, reading, English
grammar, English composition, forensic discussions, history
and chronology, the constitution of the United States and
of Massachusetts were introduced. In the case of some
Latin grammar schools such modifications in the curriculum
were introduced earlier.

49. The Massachusetts Bay Colony law of 1647. While
Harvard College had been established by the General Court
in 1636 and legislation touching on education had occurred
in 1641, 1642, and 1645, the earliest legislation in this coun-
try which affected secondary education in any comprehen-
sive way was the law passed in 1647 by the Massachusetts
Bay Colony. This law (with spelling modernized) was as
follows:

It being one chief project of that old deluder Satan to keep men
from the knowledge of the Scriptures, as in former times by keep-

1 The System of Public Education, adopted by the Town of Boston, 15th
Octob. 1789. Quoted by Jenks, Henry F., Catalogue of the Boston Public
Latin School, pp. 286-88.

166 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ing them in an unknown tongue, so in these latter times by per-
suading from the use of tongues, that so at least the true sense and
meaning of the original might be clouded by false glosses of saint-
seeming deceivers, that learning may not be buried in the grave of
our fathers in the church and commonwealth, the Lord assisting
our endeavors, —

It is 'therefore ordered, that every township in this jurisdiction
after the Lord hath increased them to the number of 50 house-
holders,|shall then forthwith appoint one within then' town to teach
all such children as shall resort to him to write and read, whose
wages shall be paid either by the parents or masters of such children
or by the inhabitants in general, by way of supply, as the major
part of those that order the prudentials of the town shall appoint;
provided, those that send their children be not oppressed by pay-
ing much more than they can have them taught in other towns;
and it is further ordered, that where any town shall increase to the
number of 100 families or householders, they shall set up a gram-
mar school, the master thereof being able to instruct youth so far
as they may be fitted for the university, provided, that if any town
neglect the performance hereof above one year, that every such
town shall pay 5 pounds to the next school till they shall perform
this order.1

In connection with this law certain important facts should
be noted. The law represented the first comprehensive legis-
lation for secondary education in America and established
principles of general educational policy which were of far-
reaching effect on American education. Therein it is to be
observed that the school was a "town" or public school,
although the law made it optional with towns whether fees
should be charged or the support of the school be a town
responsibility. It is further to be observed that the curricu-
lum of the school was specifically defined as one designed
to provide for admission to the college, which, at that time,
could mean but one thing — the narrow classical curricu-

1 Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New
England, November 11, 1G47, p. 203.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 167

lum. Still further it is to be observed that the law estab-
lished a general system of secondary schools. All these
features were later made to cover the state of Massachusetts,
which until 1820 included Maine.

50. Further legal provision in Massachusetts. The essen-
tial characteristics of the law of 1647 remained the basis of
educational legislation in Massachusetts throughout the
period of the Latin grammar school. Laws passed in 1671,
1683, 1701, 1718, and 1789 increased the amount of penalty
for non-compliance with the requirement for the establish-
ment of the grammar school. The law of 1683 provided for
the establishment of two Latin grammar schools in towns
of five hundred families or householders. The law of 1789
provided that "every town or district containing two hun-
dred families, or householders, shall be provided with a
grammar school Master of good morals, well instructed in
the Latin, Greek and English languages."1 This law re-
mained in force without material modification until 1827,
but its operation was practically nullified by a law passed
in 1824 which exempted towns containing less than five
thousand inhabitants from maintaining a Latin grammar
school on conditions easily met. Out of 296 towns enum-
erated in the census lists of Massachusetts in 1820 be-
tween 173 and 215 towns were required to maintain a
Latin grammar school according to the law of 1789. By
the law of 1824 all but seven (Boston, Salem, Nantucket,
Newburyport, Charlestown, Marblehead, Gloucester) were
released from the necessity by easy alternative conditions.
The passage of the high school law of 1827 eliminated the
Latin grammar school in Massachusetts as far as legal man-
date was concerned. It is, perhaps, needless to state that
the law requiring Latin grammar schools had never met with
even a fair degree of compliance.

1 Laws of the State of Massachusetts, 1789, chap, xrx, sees. 1-6.

168 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

51. Legal provision in other colonies. In the Plymouth
Colony an attempt was made in 1667 to establish a gram-
mar school and the General Court decided that each town
of fifty families should raise funds for that purpose. The
attempt was unsuccessful. In 1670 the Court granted
profits from certain fisheries toward the establishment of a
free school. The county of Plymouth embraced this oppor-
tunity. After 1692 the Plymouth Colony was united with
the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the laws of the latter
were in effect in the whole State. Maine was a part of
Massachusetts until 1820 and hence the legal provision for
grammar schools was the same there as in Massachusetts.
From 1641-1679 New Hampshire was also a part of Massa-
chusetts and hence more or less affected by the legislation
in Massachusetts. When the separation took place a general
school law was passed (1680) in New Hampshire but that
and subsequent laws were so neglected that in 1719 a law
was enacted which was a close copy of the law of 1647
passed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The law of 1650
as passed by the Connecticut Colony was an almost verba-
tim copy of the same law and this remained essentially the
same throughout the colonial period. In Rhode Island no
comprehensive legislation came about until 1800. Vermont
was first settled in 1724 and its first law affecting general
education did not come until the adoption of the constitu-
tion of 1777. In Connecticut, in 1666, the united colonies
were divided into four counties, with Hartford, New Lon-
don, New Haven, and Fairfield the chief town in each and
six years later the Court granted to each county six hundred
acres of land "to be improved in the best manner that may
be for the benefit of a grammar school . . . and to no other
ase or end whatsoever." And it was ordered, further, "That
in every county town there shall be set up and kept a gram-
mar school for the use of the county, the master thereof

169

being able to instruct youths so far as they may be fitted
for college." In the other colonies, while partial legislation
was made at times, no such mandatory and comprehensive
law was passed affecting secondary education directly within
the period of the grammar school. It is to be noted that in
Massachusetts the unit of the school system was the town.
This was also true of New Hampshire and the earlier system
of Connecticut. Later the county unit was employed in
Connecticut. The county unit was also found in Maryland.
52. The Latin school in New England and elsewhere. The
Latin grammar school developed first and at its best in
New England and particularly in Massachusetts, although
examples were to be found in most of the original colonies.
Statistics concerning the establishment of secondary schools
during the colonial period are difficult to secure, if indeed
the requisite data exist. Small has estimated the number
of Latin grammar schools in existence in New England up
to 1700 at about forty, of which twenty-four were found in
Massachusetts.1 Eight of these had been founded before
1650. Concerning grammar schools in the eighteenth cen-
tury Small says: 2

Meanwhile (previous to the law of 1789) the term "grammar
school" had practically disappeared from use, the district-school
had taken away the central authority, the old form of school had
been forgotten, and there was fastened upon the state the district-
school system, which required fifty years of strenuous effort to
dislodge. The grammar school had practically disappeared from
New England at the end of the eighteenth century.

While somewhat exaggerated, this statement is essentially
correct. Just how much the district-school system had to

1 Small, W. H., "The New England Grammar School, 1635-1700,"
School Review, vol. x, pp. 513-31.

2 Small, W. H., "The New England Grammar School, 1700-1800,"
School Review, vol. xiv, pp. 42-56.

170 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

do with the downfall of the grammar school in New Eng-
. land it would be difficult to determine. Its effect in that
direction was probably not small. Two other powerful
influences, however, were at work to interfere with the
growth of the Latin school. The first was the fact that the
school was designed for boys only who were preparing for
college. The law reduced this limitation to an absurdity in
Massachusetts where at periods apparently more schools
were required than there were boys entering college in any
one year during the colonial period.1 It must be remembered
that the same law limited the aim of the grammar school
to preparation for the university. Hence the social demand
for grammar schools, in point of number, was far behind the
legal requirements and the records are full of evidence of
the constant endeavor by towns to evade the law and by
the State to enforce it. The second factor interfering with
the development of the grammar school during the last
quarter of the eighteenth century was the growth of the
academy. This movement will be outlined in following
sections. It may be noted here, however, that the rise of
the academy was probably as much a result as a cause of
the failure of the Latin grammar school.

II. THE ACADEMY

53. The origin of the academy in America. Fundamen-
tally the origin of the academy movement is found in the
social changes of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
which rendered the existing classical schools inadequate for
contemporary needs. The breaking away from traditional
schools was found in England in the rise of the academy as
early as the beginning of the seventeenth century, in Scot-
land about the middle of the eighteenth century, and in

1 Inglis, A. J., The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts, pp. 65-70.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 171

America about the same time. This movement was to some
extent paralleled in Germany by the development of the
Realschule as evidenced by Hecker's school in Berlin
(established in 1747), which included in its curriculum, in
addition to the classical studies, such subjects as German,
French, drawing, geography, arithmetic, algebra, geometry,
trigonometry, history, natural history, physics, and phil-
osophy. The same tendency is found in the Scotch academy.
ThusKerr:1

About the middle of the eighteenth century there was in many
quarters a desire fqr schools with a more liberal and practical cur-
riculum than that in use in the old grammar schools. "Academies"
was the name chosen for such institutions. They were meant to
supplement grammar schools by introducing commercial and science
subjects, but in many cases they superseded them or became their
rivals. Perth has thevhonor of being the oldest academy in Scot-
land. It was founded in 1760.

For more than two centuries secondary education in the
American colonies was restricted to that provided in the
Latin grammar school with its limited classical curriculum
and its provision primarily for those who were destined to
enter the higher professions through the college. By the
middle of the eighteenth century it had become evident to
many that such a school was inadequate for the needs of
the American youth and that a broader form of secondary
education was needed. The basis of the academy movement
in America was, then, recognition of the need for a form of
secondary education of broader scope and better suited to
contemporary needs.

54. The Franklin Academy in Philadelphia. Nowhere

did the reaction away from the narrow classicism of the

Latin grammar school find a more enthusiastic proponent

than in Benjamin Franklin. In 1743 Franklin drew up the

1 Kerr, J., Scottish Education, School and University, p. 162.

172 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

plan of an academy but did not publish it until 1749. In-
struction in the Publick Academy in the City of Philadelphia
began in 1751 with its three departments, the Latin School,
the English School, and the Mathematical School. Shortly
after the institution was reincorporated as the "College,
Academy, and Charitable School of Philadelphia" and was
given the power of conferring degrees. The charter of this
"college" was revoked in 1779 and the University of Penn-
sylvania established in its stead. It is evident that this
academy was a different type of school from any previous
institution. It should also be evident — and that fact has
not always been properly recognized — that it was by no
means typical of the academy as it developed in America.

It is claimed that the Moravian Academy at Bethlehem
was established in 1742, the Moravian school for girls in
Germantown in 1742, and Nazareth Hall in 1743. It is not
clear that those schools were of secondary-school rank. If
so they antedated the academy at Philadelphia.

55. The academy in Massachusetts. The academy move-
ment in Massachusetts had its beginning in the establish-
ment of the Dummer Academy in South Byfield and of the
Phillips Academy at Andover. Although the former was not
incorporated until 1782 its history dates from the legacy of
Lieutenant-Governor Dummer in 1761 and the opening of
the school in 1763. Of the Phillips Academy at Andover
the endowment was established by the execution of a deed
of gift in 1778. In that year the school was opened and in
1780 the academy was incorporated. By 1800 seventeen
academies had been incorporated in the State of Massa-
chusetts. Before the founding of the first public high school
more than thirty-six academies had been founded in the
State — far more than the number of surviving Latin gram-
mar schools. The growth of the academy movement in
Massachusetts may be observed from the following table.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 173

TABLE LXXIV. ACADEMIES INCORPORATED IN MASSACHUSETTS,
1780-1870 *

Dates

Number

Dates

Number

New

Total

New

Total

1780-1790

6
11
11
8
32

6
17
28
36
68

1831-1840

46
21
19
10

114

135
154
164

1791-1800

1841-1850

1801-1810

1851-1860

1811-1820

1861-1870

1821-1830

* Compiled from data given in the Fortieth Report of the Massachusetts Board of Education,
Appendix E, pp. 175-347.

Here it may be noted that, as measured by the number
of academies incorporated, the period of most rapid devel-
opment in Massachusetts was 1826-35 when sixty acade-
mies were incorporated within ten years, as compared with
forty in the preceding forty-five years and sixty-nine in the
succeeding forty years. This is, of course, not a fair criterion
of the development and influence of the academy in that

TABLE LXXV. ACADEMIES AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS IN
MASSACHUSETTS f

Number of academies

Number of pupils

Total pop-

Pupilt per

Year

ulation of

10,000

Incor-
porated

Unincor-
porated

All

Incor-
porated

Unincor-
porated

Att

state

population

1835 .

24,278

683,861

350

1840 . .

1,308

1,386

3,701

28,635

32,336

737,699

438

1845 . .

1,167

1,233

3,939

26,762

30,701

856,531

358

1850 . .

845

012

3,717

19,534

23,251

994,514

234

1855 . .

646

717

4,716

17,571

22,287

1,132,364

197

1860 . .

640

705

3,561

15,933

19,494

1,231,066

158

t Compiled from data given in the Abstracts of Massachusetts School Returns for the
years 1834-60. For complete data see InglLs, A. J., The Rise of the High School in Massa-
chusetts, p. 57.

174 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

state, but it is indicative of the general trend of the academy
movement. Table LXXV shows the influence of the acad-
emy in Massachusetts during the middle of the nineteenth
century.

Since younger pupils are doubtless included in large num-
bers in these figures they cannot be interpreted with any
exactness. Nevertheless they show clearly the great influ-
ence of the academy and private schools at the middle of
the nineteenth century and its decline as the high-school
movement developed after 1840. The academy movement
in Massachusetts developed somewhat earlier than in most
parts of the country (New York State perhaps excepted).
It also declined before the advance of the high-school move-
ment at an earlier date.

56. The academy movement in other States. Apparently
the sort of education introduced by the academy met a very
definite need in the field of secondary education. Gaining
an early and firm hold, especially in Massachusetts, New
York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North Caro-
lina, toward the middle of the nineteenth century the acad-
emy had spread rapidly throughout the country. This is to
be seen from the figures presented in Table LXXVI.

In considering such figures it must, of course, be remem-
bered that the number of academies existing in 1850 includes
many which were institutions enrolling elementary- and
secondary-school pupils or even elementary school students
alone so that any direct comparison of conditions in 1850
and in 1910 would be quite unfair. Nevertheless the figures
presented indicate the important position which academies
had assumed in this country by the middle of the nineteenth
century.

The academy movement during the last half of the nine-
teenth century was intimately related to the development
of the public high-school movement and is best considered
in that connection in later sections.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA

175

TABLE LXXVI. SHOWING THE NUMBER OF ACADEMIES AND
PUPILS ATTENDING THEM IN 1850. ALSO THEIR DISTRIBUTION
WITH REFERENCE TO POPULATION. FIGURES ARE PRESENTED
ALSO FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN 1910-1911
FOR PURPOSES OF COMPARISON*

Section of the
Country

Academies in 1850

All Secondary Schools 1910

Number of

Population
to each

Number of

Population
to each

Schools

Pupils

School

Pupil

Schools

Pupils

School

Pupil

1,007
1,636
515
238
1,379
931
330
49

6,085
6,095

40,866
82,923
29,823
9,952
49,818
37,559
11,224
1,052

263,096
263,096

2,709
3,606
8,783
3,861
3,392
3,613
2,849
3,649

3,811
3,811

67
71
152
88
96
89
84
170

88
88

850
1,996
2,909
1,339
1,408
787
829
443

10,581
12,213

118,741
239,599
266,415
112,351
85,918
51,309
57,702
64,014

996,049
1,115,326

7,716
9,677
6,274
5,671
8,681
10,686
8,598
9,532

7,922
7,531

55
81
69
68
142
164
124
66

Middle Atlantic . . .
East North Central
West North Central
South Atlantic ....
East South Central.
West South Central
Other States

States of 1850
All present States . .

* Figures for the academies taken from the American Journal of Education, vol. i, p. 368
(reproduced by Dexter, E. G., A History of Education in the United States, p. 96). Figures
for the schools of 1910-11 taken from Public and Private Schools, Bulletin of the Bureau of
Education (1912), no. 22, p. 42. Figures for population taken from Report of the Thirteenth
Census (1910), vol. I, pp. 30-31. Computation and compilation by the writer.

57. The control and support of the academy. By the end
of the eighteenth century the Latin grammar school of the
colonies had become an institution of the past except in a
few important centers. The high-school movement did not
gain any great impetus until after the middle of the nine-
teenth century. Hence it is obvious that the academy was
the dominant institution of secondary education in this coun-
try from its inception in the last part of the eighteenth cen-
tury until well into the second half of the nineteenth
century. The Latin grammar school had been essentially
a free public institution, controlled and supported by the
town or state. The high school likewise was a free public
institution in the fullest sense of the term. In contrast with

176 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

those institutions the academy was essentially a private
institution in the majority of cases, the control being in-
vested commonly in a board of trustees or other similar body.
Nevertheless it is true that all degrees of private and public
control and support were exemplified, ranging from com-
pletely private and personal control to practically public
control and supervision.

In Massachusetts previous to 1797 seven academies had
received state aid in addition to the rights of legal existence.
In that year other academies petitioned the legislature for
endowments and a committee was appointed to consider
those petitions and outline a plan of the public policy with
regard to incorporated academies. This committee reported
February 27, 1797:

On a general view of this subject, the committee are of the opin-
ion that the system hitherto pursued, of endowing academies with
State lands ought to be continued; but with several material al-
terations; first, that no academy (at least not already erected)
ought to be encouraged by government unless it have a neighbor-
hood to support it of at least thirty or forty thousand inhabitants,
not accommodated in any manner by any other academies, by any
other college or school answering the purpose of an academy;
secondly ^ that every such portion of the Commonwealth ought to be
considered as equally entitled to grants of State lands, in aid of
private donations; and thirdly, that no State lands ought to be
granted to any academy but in aid of permanent funds.1

In the same report it was recommended that half a town-
ship of six miles square of land in Maine (which was until
1820 a part of Massachusetts) be granted to each academy
which met certain conditions regarding funds. Those recom-
mendations were adopted and from this action of the legis-
lature it would appear that the academy in Massachusetts

1 Report of the Committee, quoted in the Fortieth Annual Report of the
Massachusetts Board of Education, Appendix E, pp. 207-09.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 177

was recognized as early as 1797 as fulfilling in some degree
the function of a quasi-public institution and as one deserv-
ing public support. That this view was accepted is clear
from the following:

The following principles appear to have been established, as de-
termining the relations of the academies to the Commonwealth.
They were to be regarded as in many respects, and to a considerable
extent, as public schools; as a part of an organized system of pub-
lic and universal education; as opening the way, for all the people,
to a higher order of instruction than the common schools can sup-
ply, and as a complement to them. Towns, as well as the Common-
wealth, were to share, with individuals, the character of founders,
or legal visitors of them.1

The organization of the academies as component parts of
a comprehensive State system reached its highest level in
New York State. In 1787 the academies in that State were
made a part of the University of the State of New York
which had been organized three years before. Here also the
policy of endowing academies with State funds was adopted.
In the earlier period special grants were made to academies,
and a permanent fund, known as the Literature Fund, was
established hi 1813. The organized system of academy sup-
port and control which thus grew up in New York State
was an important element prolonging the life of the academy
and in some ways delaying the high-school movement in
that State.

The policy of aiding academies by State appropriations
of public money or land was somewhat general throughout
the country and such academies were regularly looked upon
as quasi-public schools. It is to be noted, however, that in
New York State only did the State exercise any sort of ade-
quate supervision and control, so that in general we find

1 Report of the Committee, quoted in the Fortieth Annual Report of the
Massachusetts Board of Education, Appendix E, pp. 207-09.

178 PKINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

the phenomenon of schools essentially controlled by private
individuals, religious denominations, or self-perpetuating
boards of trustees, in extensive amount supported by public
money.

58. The curriculum of the academy. It was the design
of the early founders of academies to establish schools,
which, as contrasted with the Latin grammar schools, should
provide a rather extensive training covering a number of
subjects of study having value aside from preparation for
college, courses of study which should be better fitted to
the changed conditions of life and society, and be of prac-
tical benefit to pupils in whatever kind of life they were des-
tined to follow. This aim is manifest in the proposals pro-
mulgated by Franklin and in all his activities connected with
the academy at Philadelphia. It is also manifest in the
constitution proposed by the founders of the Phillips Acad-
emy at Andover wherein the aim was stated to be

to lay the foundation of a public free school or ACADEMY for the
purposes of instructing Youth, not only in English and Latin Gram-
mar, Writing, Arithmetic, and those Sciences wherein they are com-
monly taught; but more especially to learn them the GREAT END
AND REAL BUSINESS OF LIVING ... it is again declared
that the first and principal object of this Institution is the promo-
tion of TRUE PIETY and VIRTUE; the second, instruction in the
English, Latin, and Greek Languages, together with Writing,
Arithmetic, Music, and the Art of Speaking; the third, practical
Geometry, Logic, and Geography; and the fourth, such other
liberal Arts and Sciences or Languages, as opportunity and ability
may hereafter admit, and as the TRUSTEES shall direct.

As early as 1799 we know that the following subjects were
taught at the Phillips Academy at Exeter: the English,
French, Greek, and Latin languages, geography, arithmetic,
practical geometry, rhetoric, logic, natural philosophy
(physics), history, astronomy, moral philosophy, and natu-

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 179

ral law. At the same academy in 1818 were given studies in
a "Classical Department" and an "English Department."
The studies of the Classical Department were practically
the same as those of the Boston Latin School of about the
same time. The English Department included the following
studies:

For the First Year: English Grammar including exercises in Read-
ing, in Parsing, and Analysing, in the correction of bad English;
Punctuation and Prosody; Arithmetic; Geography, and Algebra
through Simple Equations.

For the Second Year: English Grammar continued; Geometry;
Plane Trigonometry and its application to heights and distances;
mensuration of Sup. and Sol.; Elements of Ancient History; Logic;
Rhetoric; English Composition; Declamation and exercises of the
forensic kind.

For the Third Year: Surveying; Navigation; Elements of Chem-
istry and Natural Philosophy with experiments; Elements of Mod-
ern History, particularly of the United States; Moral and Political
Philosophy, with English Composition, Forensics, and Declama-
tion continued.

The development of the academy coincided with the
development of the newly established Republic and this
movement was marked by the extended curriculum offered
to boys and girls who were to become citizens of that
Republic. It also coincided with the development of the
sciences and the part played by them in the nineteenth
century. This also was reflected by the curriculum of the
academy. Subjects of study were constantly added to the
curriculum until it covered almost every phase of learning.
This is indicated by the range of subjects reported to the
Regents of the University of the State of New York by the
academies in that State in 1837: 1

1 Quoted from Monroe, P., Principles of Secondary Education, p. 58,
with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company.

180 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Arithmetic, algebra, architecture, astronomy, botany, book-
keeping, Biblical antiquities, biography, chemistry, composition,
conic sections, constitution of the United States, constitution of
New York, elements of criticism, declamation, drawing, dialing,
English grammar, evidences of Christianity, embroidery, civil
engineering, extemporaneous speaking, French, geography, phys-
ical geography, geology, plane geometry, analytic geometry, Greek,
Grecian antiquities, German, general history, history of the United
States, History of New York, Hebrew, Italian, Latin, law (consti-
tutional, select revised statutes, criminal, mercantile, Black-
stone's Commentaries), logic, leveling, logarithms, vocal music, in-
strumental music, mapping, mensuration, mineralogy, mythology,
natural history, navigation, nautical astronomy, natural the-
ology, orthography, natural philosophy, moral philosophy, intellec-
tual philosophy, penmanship, political economy, painting, perspec-
tive, physiology, English pronunciation, reading, rhetoric, Roman
antiquities, stenography, statistics, surveying, Spanish, trigonom-
etry, topography, technology, principles of teaching.

With the radical changes in the curriculum came also
tendencies to change the methods of teaching employed.
About the curriculum of the Latin grammar school had been
developed a body of traditional method which continued
to be the method employed in the teaching of Latin and
Greek and also was transferred to the newer language
studies. The other subjects now introduced were not forti-
fied with traditional methods and hence there was possible
experimentation in the methods of teaching those subjects.
Formal catechetical and recitation methods continued to be
employed but some of the newer subjects demanded an
emphasis on practical use that were not to be found in
previous methods, e.g., surveying, navigation, the sciences,
painting, declamation, stenography, bookkeeping, etc. In
the case of political economy, evidences of Christianity, law,
etc., the methods employed emphasized the acquisition of
informational facts, frequently of a type wherein the text-
book was arranged in question-answer form. Textbooks

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 181

rapidly multiplied and introduced new methods, some of
which were of temporary vogue while others influenced all
later teaching.

59. Secondary education for girls in the academy. In
colonial times secondary or higher education for girls was
entirely lacking. In Dorchester, Massachusetts, the ques-
tion of the admission of girls to the grammar school was
raised at the time of the founding of the school, but it evi-
dently did not result in any such provision. In 1784 the
girls of that town were permitted to attend the grammar
school (building?) in the summer, but it is doubtful that
anything ever resulted from that privilege. Early in the
history of the academy movement, however, we find acade-
mies established for girls alone and for both sexes together.
Of academies for girls alone the school at Germantown
founded in 1743 may have been the first although there is
some question of the character of that school. At any rate
a school for girls was established by Dr. Rush in Phila-
delphia in 1780. Of coeducational academies the Leicester
Academy in Massachusetts was probably the first. That
school was coeducational from its establishment in 1784.
This was followed in Massachusetts by a number of acade-
mies either for girls alone or for both sexes and the concep-
tion of secondary education for girls was thus firmly im-
planted in the public mind.

Some of the academies established for girls were of a dis-
tinctly inferior character to those for boys and emphasized
particularly the "polite accomplishments" of the period.
Foreshadowing these schools was a school such as that
whose announcement is quoted by Monroe for the Armston
School (1772), in which such subjects as the following were
offered: l

1 Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, vol. n, p. 120; courtesy of the
publishers, The MacmUlan Company.

182 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Petit Point in Flowers, Fruit, Landscapes and Sculpture, Nun's
Work, Embroidery in Silk, Gold, Silver, Pearls, or embosed, Shad-
ing of all kinds, in the Various Works in Vogue, Dresden Point
Work, Lace Ditto, Catgut in different Modes, flourishing Muslin,
after the newest Taste, and most elegant Pattern Waxwork in
Figure, Fruit, or Flowers, Shell Ditto, or grotesque, Painting in
Water Colours and Mezzotinto; also the Art of taking off Foliage,
with several other Embellishments necessary for the Amusement
of Persons of Fortune who have Taste.

Such a school was the prototype of the later "finishing
school."

60. Effect of the academy movement. The effect of the
academy on the development of secondary education in the
United States was both good and bad. On the credit side of
its account may be placed at least four important contribu-
tions which secondary education in America received from
the academy movement: (1) it introduced, or at least met,
the conception that secondary education should be provided
for the large number of boys and girls not preparing to
enter college; (2) it enriched and extended the course of
study; (3) it introduced and developed secondary education
for girls; (4) it popularized if not democratized secondary
education in America and prepared the public mind for
universal secondary education which was to be attempted
later through the public high school. To these four contri-
butions of the academy we may add another item in the fact
that private initiative founded and fostered secondary edu-
cation at a period when legislatures and local authorities
failed to provide an institution adequate to meet the needs
of society. For a period of more than three quarters of
a century the academy was the dominant form of second-
ary education in the country, during a large part of that
time it was the only form of secondary education in many
regions, and it exerted an influence on secondary educa-
tion in the United States which lasted throughout the nine-

teenth century in spite of the rapid growth of the public
high school during the last half or the last quarter of that
century.

On the debit side of the ledger we must enter accounts
against the academy of the following items: (1) The acad-
emy was essentially a private, sometimes a denominational
or at least a religious institution. The very fact that, while
dependent on. private or denominational initiative and in-
terest for establishment and control, academies were "to
be regarded as in many respects and to a considerable extent,
public schools; as a part of an organized system of public
and universal education" constituted its worst defect.
(2) With the possible exception of academies in New York
State, the academies were not organized into a State system
and standards were not established. (3) While the academies
did popularize secondary education in the United States
they did not democratize it in the sense that they equal-
ized educational opportunity for all. Here two characteris-
tics of the academy interfered: first, in spite of numerous
free or nearly free scholarships, etc., the burden of expense
fell on the pupil or his parents rather than on the public;
secondly, since academies were located more according to
the choice or whim of the founders and were in part "board-
ing " schools, attendance at them was determined as much
by their accessibility as by need and desire. This again
affected the matter of expense. (4) While the academy did
much to pave the way for the later public high school, both
by establishing a form of organization, curriculum, etc.,
and by preparing the mind of the public for extensive
secondary education, it also constituted the greatest impedi-
ment to the early development of a really public secondary
school. Though the high-school movement started at the
beginning of the second quarter of the nineteenth century,
its victory over the private school and academy was not

184 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

complete until the end of the century, if indeed it has yet
fulfilled its destiny in that respect.

In this connection it is worthy of note that practically
every new movement in secondary education has begun in
some private or semi-private institution and only gradually
has been adopted by the public high school. Instances
of this may be found in the manual training movement
commercial education, vocational education and vocational
guidance, the six-year high-school plan, and other move-
ments.

With the development of the public secondary school,
many academies were absorbed into the public system, a
few grew into colleges or other higher institutions, and
many died through lack of support, high-school competi-
tion, or for other reasons. The lessening importance of the
academy and the private school and the increasing impor-
tance of the public high school during the past quarter-
century are best considered in connection with the history
of the public high-school movement. In passing, however,
it may be noted that non-sectarian private secondary
schools (including academies) have decreased from 1182
schools with 57,385 pupils in 1895-96 to 662 schools with
51,215 pupils hi 1914-15, while sectarian secondary schools
maintained by the Roman Catholic Church have increased
from 271 schools with 11,728 pupils in 1895-96 to 975
schools with 56,182 pupils in 1914-15. Other sectarian
secondary schools have increased but slightly.

III. THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL

61. Secondary education in the early nineteenth century.
Of the colonial Latin grammar schools a few only had sur-
vived the educational decline in public education of the
eighteenth century, the extension of the district system,

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 185

and the rapid development of the academy in the late
eighteenth century. Here and there, particularly in New
England, a few of the grammar schools survived. The
Boston Public Latin School renewed its power with impor-
tant modifications under the able administration of Gould
(1814-28) and several other Latin grammar schools con-
tinued to flourish. However, the demands of society after
the birth of the new nation had forever relegated the Latin
grammar school as a general public secondary school to the
history of the past. The institution which had replaced it
met some of the newer conceptions of education, but the
academy was essentially a non-public or at best but a quasi-
public institution which could not satisfy the ideals of a
thoroughly public secondary school. Hence there was need
for a new type of secondary school which should involve
the newer conceptions of the aims and methods of secondary
education as exemplified in the academy and at the same
time fulfill the requirements of a public institution. This
idea was especially strong in Massachusetts and its accom-
plishment there marked the beginning of the high school
in America.

62. The English Classical (High) School of Boston. Sen-
timent for this type of secondary school first bore fruit in
Boston where the English Classical School was founded in
1821. The aim of those who advocated this school is indi-
cated in the report of a sub-committee which had been
appointed to consider the question of its establishment:

The mode of education now adopted, and the branches of knowl-
edge that are taught at our English grammar schools are not suffi-
ciently extensive nor otherwise calculated to bring the powers of the
mind into operation nor to qualify a youth to fill usefully and re-
spectably many of the stations, both public and private, in which
he may be placed. A parent who wishes to give a child an educa-
tion that shall fit him for active life, and shall serve as a foundation
for eminence in his profession, whether mercantile or mechanical,

186 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

is under the necessity of giving him a different education from any
which our public schools can now furnish. Hence, many children
are separated from their parents and sent to private academies in
this vicinity, to acquire that instruction which cannot be obtained
at the public seminaries.1

Its aim was further stated in the Regulations of the School
Committee for 1833:

It was instituted in 1821, with the design of furnishing the young
men of the city who are not intended for a collegiate course of study,
and who have enjoyed the usual advantages of the other public
schools, with the means of completing a good English education to
fit them for active life or qualify them for eminence in private or
public station.2

Here it is to be noted that while the conception of college
preparation as a function of secondary education was still
held (and exemplified in Boston in the Public Latin School
which still continued) there was introduced in public sec-
ondary education the conception that another function was
also involved in secondary education — that of providing
training for boys destined for other walks of life, " whether
mercantile or mechanical." This conception was in some
degree reflected in the first course of study in that school:

First Class: Composition; reading from the most approved au-
thors; exercises in criticism, comprising critical analyses of the
language, grammar, and style of the best English authors, their
errors and beauties; Declamation; Geography; Arithmetic con-
tinued.

Second Class: Composition, Reading, Exercises in Criticism, Dec-
lamation; Algebra; Ancient and Modern History and Chronology;
Logic; Geometry; Plane Trigonometry, and its applications to
mensuration of heights and distances; Navigation; Surveying;
Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids; Forensic Discussions.

1 Report of the Sub-Committee quoted in Catalogue of the English High
School, Boston, 1890. Also quoted by Brown, E. E., The Making of Our
Middle Schools, p. 299.

2 Regulations of the School Committee (1833), pp. 14-16.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 187

Third Class: Composition; Exercises in Criticism; Declamation;
Mathematics; Logic; History, particularly that of the United
States; Natural Philosophy, including Astronomy; Moral and Po-
litical Philosophy.1

In this course of study it is to be noted that the Boston
school took over the newer subjects of study from the acad-
emy, that great emphasis was placed on the study of Eng-
lish, and that an attempt was made to provide a certain
amount of "vocational education." The practical side of
secondary education found manifestation in the study of
English, in the mathematics to a certain degree, in naviga-
tion, surveying (important in those days in New England),
and in the sciences. This tendency was furthered in the
course of study for 1823-24 when bookkeeping, "by single
and double entry," "elements of Arts and Sciences," and
"Practical Mathematics" were added to the program of
studies, together with Natural Theology, Sacred Geography,
and Evidences of Christianity — "vocational" and "moral"
training at the beginning of the high-school movement.

The school was first called "The English Classical School."
The name "English High School" occurs first in the records
of the Boston School Committee of June 23, 1824, and the
term was in common use until 1832. In that year the
original name was restored only to be changed once more
in 1833 when the name "English High School" was for-
mally adopted.

63. The Girls' High School of Boston. The secondary
education of girls had been begun in the academy during
the last part of the eighteenth century. The first public
institution for the secondary education of girls was that
established in Boston in 1826. Its character may be seen
from the course of study adopted:2

1 Report of the Sub-Committee, mentioned i» note 1.
1 The High School for Girls, Boston: An Account (February, 1826).
pp. 12-13.

188 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

First Year

Required: No. 1. Reading. . .2. Spelling. . .3. Writing words and
sentences from dictation. . .4. English Grammar with exercises
in the same. . .5. Composition. . .6. Modern and Ancient Geog-
raphy... 7. Intellectual and written arithmetic. . .8. Rheto-
ric... 9. History of the United States.

Allowed: Logic, or Botany.

Second Year

Required: Nos. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, continued. . .10. Bookkeeping by
single entry. . . 11. Elements of Geometry. . . 12. Natural Phil-
osophy. . . 13. General History. . . 14. History of England ... 15.
Paley's Natural Theology.

Allowed: Logic, Botany, Demonstrative Geometry, Algebra,
Latin, or French.

Third Year

Required: Nos. 1, 5, 12, 15, continued. . . 16. Astronomy...
17. Treatise on the use of globes. . . 18. Chemistry. . . 19. His-
tory of Greece. . .20. History of Rome. . . 21. Paley's Evidences
of Christianity.

Allowed: Logic, Algebra, Principles of perspective, projection of
maps, Botany, Latin or French.

The success of this school was so great that more girls
wished to enter than could be accommodated. This gave
rise to the necessity of increasing the facilities for instruction
in this school or of extending the scope of the elementary
schools for girls — the writing and grammar schools. The
latter course was adopted and the High School for Girls
passed out of existence in 1828, not to be revived until the
middle of the century, when it was reestablished as a training
school for teachers. This had been one of its chief purposes
in the original establishment.

64. The Massachusetts law of 1827. Six years after the
establishment of the English Classical (High) School and
the year following the establishment of the High School for

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 189

Girls in Boston the State of Massachusetts enacted a law
requiring the establishment of high schools throughout the
State. That law (operative March 10, 1827) was the real
beginning of the high-school movement and deserves some-
what extended notice here. The part affecting secondary
education directly reads as follows:

And every city, town, or district, containing five hundred families
or householders, shall be provided with such teacher or teachers
for such term of time as shall be equivalent to twenty-four months,
for one school in each year, and shall also be provided with a
master of good morals, competent to instruct, in addition to the
branches of learning aforesaid, the history of the United States,
bookkeeping by single entry, geometry, surveying, and algebra;
and shall employ such master to instruct a school, in such city,
town, or district, for the benefit of all the inhabitants thereof, at
least ten months in each year, exclusive of vacations, in such
convenient place, or alternately at such places in such city, town,
or district, as the said inhabitants, at their meeting in March, or
April, annually shall determine; and in every city, or town, con-
taining four thousand inhabitants, such master shall be competent
in addition to all the foregoing branches, to instruct the Latin and
Greek languages, history, rhetoric, and logic." 1

In spite of the various retroactive measures of 1829 (re-
pealed 1835), of 1840 (repealed 1848), and 1850 (repealed
1857), this law remained the basis of all subsequent legisla-
tion affecting secondary education in Massachusetts and a
model for the country. Significant, however, were the pro-
visions of the act of 1857 which changed the course of study
so as to include algebra and the history of the United States
in the curriculum of the elementary school, natural philos-
ophy, chemistry, botany, Latin, and the civil polity of Mass-
achusetts and of the United States in the curriculum of high
schools of lower grade (in towns of five hundred families),

1 Laws of the State of Massachusetts, January Session, 1827, chap
CXLIII, sees., 1, 19, 21, especially.

190 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

and French, astronomy, geology, intellectual and moral sci-
ence, and political economy in the curriculum of high schools
of more than four thousand inhabitants.1 After those
changes no important modifications were made in the high-
school law until the revision of 1898.

The term "high school " does not appear in the laws which
created that type of school in Massachusetts until 1840.
In common use, however, the term was applied almost from
the beginning in 1827 to designate the type of school referred
to in the act of that year. The term was applied indiscrim-
inately to schools in towns of five hundred families or those in
towns of four thousand inhabitants and, although the law
distinguished high schools of two different types, once a high
school was established it tended to include in its curriculum
all the studies prescribed for high schools of higher grade.
Misuse of the term and evasion of the law were, of course,
frequent.

It is to be noted that, while no specific mention is made of
boys and girls in the law, except as they were included in the
phrase "for the benefit of all the inhabitants thereof," both
girls and boys were regularly admitted to the high school
from the very beginning. The absence of contemporary com-
ment on this fact indicates how thoroughly the idea of coedu-
cation had been inculcated through the academy movement.

65. The public high school in Massachusetts. The figures
presented in the following table will fairly indicate the devel-
opment of the high school in Massachusetts from the passage
of the original law in 1827 up to 1865. By the latter date the
high school had assumed a stable position in the State, the
legal requirements regarding the establishment of schools
had met with a fair degree of compliance, the list of subjects

1 Acts and Resolves, 1857, chap. 206, sees. 1, 2, 3. On the whole ques-
tion of high-school legislation in Massachusetts see Inglis, A. J., The Rise oj
the High Sdiool in Massachusetts, chaps, ii-m.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 191

to be taught had assumed a form destined to endure for the
rest of the century, the graded-school system was well under
way, the academy had begun to give way to the public high
school as the preeminent institution of secondary education,
and a favorable attitude on the part of the public toward the
high school had been created.

TABLE LXXVII. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF HIGH SCHOOLS IN
MASSACHUSETTS *

Census

Number re-
quired by law

Established
according to
law

Percentage
meeting the
law

Established
but not
required

Total
number
established

1830

8.6

1840

36.4

1850

55.3

1855

120

64.2

1860

128

67.2

102

1865

130

68.0

108

* Inglis, A. J., The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts, pp. 38, 42-45.

The unstable status of some of the high schools established
and the fact that in some cases the so-called "high schools"
were so in little more than name render this table somewhat
unreliable, but the general growth is obvious. It will be
noted that for nearly a quarter of a century after the passage
of the mandatory law for high schools the development was
comparatively slow. There is abundant evidence that many
factors combined to interfere with that development — the
dominance of the academy, the prevalence of the "district
system" for common schools involving a conflict of interest,
control, and policy between the "town" high schools and the
district common schools, the difficulty of meeting the man-
date of the law in smaller towns and sparsely populated dis-
tricts, the ever-present financial problem, the various reac-

192 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

tionary laws passed as relief measures in 1829, 1840, and
1850, the lack of any centralized authority until the estab-
lishment of the Board of Education in 1837.

The mere number of high schools is not a good measure of
their real effectiveness. A better measure of the degree of
their influence would be the extent to which they served the
population. The following table will give an indication of
the situation in Massachusetts in 1865.

TABLE LXXVIII. DISTRIBUTION OF HIGH SCHOOLS IN MASSA-
CHUSETTS ACCORDING TO POPULATION IN 1865 *

Population

Percentage of
population
served

Total population of State, census of 1865

1,267,031

In towns required by law to maintain high
school

961,297

75.9

In towns required to maintain high schools and
meeting the law

828,643

65.2

In towns required to maintain high schools and
not meeting the law

132,654

10.5

In towns not required to maintain high schools but
doing so

37,238

2.9

Total in towns maintaining high schools

865,881

68 3

* Inglis, A. J., op. cit., p. 48.

It has been intimated that many of the so-called "high
schools " were not deserving of that title. This is undoubt-
edly true, and it is a difficult task to judge the standing of
some schools. Basing the estimate on a study of almost
every report of every town in Massachusetts from 1827 to
1865, I feel safe in asserting that the number was certainly
not less than sixty-three in 1861 and in all probability was
far greater. The number sixty-three was determined from
definite data preserved.1

1 Inglis, A. J., op. cit., pp. 49-51.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 193

In Massachusetts the public high school fought its way
successfully against the academy much earlier than wap the
case in most States. The following table presents data
showing the status of the academy and the high school in
Massachusetts, where the high school first developed, and
in New York, where the academy gained its firmest foot-
hold.

TABLE LXXIX. GROWTH OF THE HIGH SCHOOL AND OF THE
ACADEMY IN MASSACHUSETTS AND IN NEW YORK STATE*

Massachusetts

New Yolk

Period

High schools
established

Academies
incorporated

High schools
established

Academies
incorporated

Period

Total

Period

Total

Period

Total

Period

Total

Before 1820..

1820-1840. . .

112

176

228

1840-1860. . .

102

142

183

411

* Cf. Inglis, A. J., op. cit., pp. 11, 46, 155.

66. The high-school movement in the United States.
With a few exceptions the high schools of this country owe
their basis in aim, theory, and practice to the high school
first created and earliest developed in Massachusetts. For
the first fifteen or twenty years after the beginning of the
movement progress was slow. Previous to 1840 not more
than eighteen high schools had been established in Massa-
chusetts and probably a less number outside that State.
Within the next two decades (1840-1860) the movement
spread rather rapidly, especially in Massachusetts, Ohio, and
New York. Next to Massachusetts, Ohio seems to have led

194 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

in the establishment of high schools, and the growth of the
high school in that State is of particular interest. The move-
ment there began with the establishment of the Central
High Schools in Cleveland and Columbus in 1846. For the
period up to 1860 the State Commissioner reported as
follows: l

There were few, if any, High Schools in the State fifteen years
ago: and not more than twenty when our general school law was
anacted in 1853. Since 1855 they have increased from 91 to 161,
being an average increase of 12 per annum. During that time the
teachers in these schools have increased from 196 to 319 and the
pupils from 7522 to 13,183.

Numerous estimates have been made of the number of
public high schools established and maintained in various
parts of the country for the period from the founding of the
English Classical (High) School in Boston up to the year
1889-90 when the Reports of the United States Commissioner
of Education began to give some data. None of those esti-
mates appears to be very reliable. Commissioner Harris esti-
mated the number of high schools in operation in the United
States in 1870 at about 160 and those in operation in 1880
as about 800. 2 Those figures are undoubtedly a gross under-
estimate, but how much so it would be difficult to say in the
present state of our knowledge. Dexter has analysed the
data given in the Report of the Commissioner of Education
for 1902 to determine the number and distribution of the
3,179 public high schools reporting to the Department of
Education the dates of their establishment. His table is
reproduced on the following page.

1 Seventh Annual Report of the Ohio State Commissioner of Common Schools
(1860), p. 45. Cf. also Inglis, A. J., op. cit., pp. 156-57.

2 Harris, W. T., "The Growth of the Public High Schools in the United
States," Proceedings of the National Education Association (1901), p. 174.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 195

TABLE LXXX. ESTABLISHMENT OF PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS BY
DECADES IN THE VARIOUS DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY*

Decades

North
Atlantic

South
Atlantic

South
Central

North
Central

Western

Total

1820-1829

1830-1839

1840-1849

1850-1859

108

1860-1869

103

177

1870-1879

121

298

479

1880-1889

142

103

508

829

1890-1899

318

161

595

155

1320

1900-1902

202

Total to 1902. .

782

193

334

1642

228

3179

* Dexter, E. G., A History of Education in the United States, pp. 172-73. Cf. also Inglis,
A. J., op. cit., p. 155.

Although these figures are without exactness, they are
io be considered as an underestimate rather than as too
great and indicate the rapidity of the development of the
high school in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.
The same criticism applies to the figures given in Table
LXXXI illustrating the development of the high school up
to 1915. The nearer we come to the present the more reliable
the figures become.

With all due allowance for the inaccuracies in the data
available and the difficulties of interpreting conditions,
we may be justified in saying that the period from 1821 to
about 1870 represents the period of the beginning of the
high school movement for the country at large, the period
of about 1870 to 1890 the period of growth and development,
and the period from about 1890 to the present the period of
the dominance of the public high school in the field of
secondary education.

196 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE LXXXI. GROWTH OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL,
1890-1915*

Year

Schools

Teachers

Students

1890-1891

2,771

8,270

211,596

1895-1896

4,974

15,700

380,493

1900-1901

6,318

21,778

541,730

1905-1906

8,031

30,844

722,692

1910-1911

10,234

45,167

984,677

1913-1914

11,515

57,909

1,218,804

1914-1915

11,674

62,519

1,328,984

* Figures taken from Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916),
vol. n, p. 449.

67. The public high school and the academy. The devel-
opment of the academy and its dominance in the field of
secondary education in this country until well into the last
half, or even the last quarter, of the nineteenth century have
been outlined earlier in this chapter. That secondary schools
established and controlled by private individuals or cor-
porations, more or less supported by public funds, threat-
ened to become the controlling type of secondary school
in the United States is obvious from the data previously
presented. This tendency the public high school was forced
to combat and for more than half a century the outcome of
the public high-school movement was dubious. However,
by the middle of the last quarter of the nineteenth century
we find the high school well in the lead and its ultimate
victory over the academy and private high school well
assured. The situation since that time is illustrated by the
figures in Table LXXXIL

With all due allowance for the incompleteness and inac-
curacy of the returns made to the Federal Bureau of Educa-
tion (especially for the earlier years), the growing influence
of the public high school and its dominance over the private

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 197

TABLE LXXXII. THE RELATIVE PROGRESS OF PUBLIC Ain>
PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS, 1889-1915*

Year

Per cent of number
of schools

Per cent of number
of teachers

Per cent of number
of pupils

Public

Private

Public

Private

Public

Private

1889-1890

60.75
68.37
75.22
82.32
85.15
83.85

39.25
31.63

24.78
17.68
14.85
16.15

55.85
62.26
66.82
74.29
78.90
81.68

44.15
37.74
33.18
25.71
21.10
18.32

68.13

74.74
82.41
86.38
88.63
89.55

31.87
25.26
17.59
13.62
11.37
10.45

1894-1895

1899-1900

1904-1905

1909-1910..

1914-1915

* Report oj the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. u, p. 449.

secondary school is evident. There must always be some
place for the private secondary school, and it is doubtful that
the present status will ever greatly change. An extension of
public supervision over privately controlled schools is prob-
ably the next step rather than any form of repression or
complete control on the part of the State. Since the public
school must always determine its policy in terms of the
larger group, some small proportion of children will always
receive better educational opportunities in the smaller
private school than in the public system. This fact, together
with the facts that the complete exclusion of religion from the
public school leads to the establishment of sectarian schools,
and that educational experimentation is commonly more
easily conducted in the private school, will doubtless encour-
age the continuance of non-public secondary schools.

68. State systems of secondary education. In the United
States there exists no Federal power or administrative ma-
chinery, such as is found in some countries, whereby the
centralized control or supervision of secondary schools can

198 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDAEY EDUCATION

be developed. Control over secondary education as over
other forms of secondary education is left to the several
States. Some States have exercised that power extensively:
other States have left the control of secondary education
almost entirely to local school authorities. As a result there
is found little uniformity in practice, and gross inequalities
in educational opportunity are obvious. It has already
been shown that from the passage of the law of 1647 second-
ary schools in Massachusetts have been more or less con-
trolled by the State. By the passage of the law of 1827
Massachusetts compelled the establishment of public high
schools which were required to meet very specific demands
as to curriculum, length of school year, etc., to that extent
providing for a State system of secondary education. Not
until 1902, however, did the State share directly in the sup-
port of public secondary education. An anomalous situation
arose in the early part of the high-school movement when
the State lent financial support to private academies, while
requiring communities to maintain high schools, but not
sharing in the support of them.

In other States comprehensive schemes for the State
organization of all education, including the coordination
of secondary schools with other divisions of education, were
elaborated before the close of the eighteenth century or in
the early part of the nineteenth century, although the actual
carrying-out of proposed schemes failed or was developed
later. Thus, in 1779 Jefferson presented a bill to the Legis-
lature of Virginia which provided for elementary schools in
each district in the State five or six miles square, for coordi-
nated grammar schools at twenty centers in the State, and
for the articulation of those schools with William and Mary
College. Some of his proposals were incorporated in the
law of 1796, but the scheme as a whole was not put into
operation.

SECONDAEY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 199

In 1784 the University of the State of New York was
established and by 1787 it had assumed the fundamental
characteristics of its present form. The University provided
an elaborate form of control and supervision over all second-
ary schools and most of the higher institutions of the State.
It did not originally provide for careful articulation between
the elementary school and the academy, in part because of
the then existing emphasis on secondary education, and in
part because at that time much of the present-day elemen-
tary education was provided in the academy. Practically
from the beginning assistance was rendered by the State to
secondary education, and in 1813 a permanent "Literature
Fund " was established which has always been applied wholly
to the support of secondary education. The University plan
was adopted in Georgia in 1785 in the Territory of New
Orleans, in the University of Michigan in 1817, and the
scheme may be traced in other States.

While the development of State systems of secondary
schools began in the legal mandate of Massachusetts in
1647, its progress has been more favorable where State
support has been stressed instead of legal mandate and
where control and supervision has been gained in large part
through the granting or withholding of public State funds.
In some States there has never been any legal mandate re-
quiring the establishment of public high schools and then*
development has been secured wholly or almost wholly by
State aid encouraging local interest and support. Appar-
ently the first example of a law providing for the appropria-
tion of State funds to aid high schools (though the practice
of granting aid through gifts of State money and land had
grown up with the academy movement) was the act of the
Legislature of Maine in 1871, which provided that the State
should pay annually an amount equal to that raised by
local taxation for a high school, that amount, however, not

200 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

to exceed in any one case $500. A somewhat similar pro-
vision was made in Wisconsin in 1875, in Minnesota in 1878,
and later in many other States. At the present time some
form of State aid is provided in practically every Common-
wealth, although the source of such funds, their amounts,
and the forms of their distribution vary widely.1 Especially
noteworthy has been the tendency to encourage vocational
education by the granting of State aid.

The fact that in most States legislation affecting the es-
tablishment and maintenance of public high schools during
the earlier period was permissive rather than mandatory and
the fact that in some States no provision had been made,
gave rise early to the question of the legal right on the part
of communities and States to raise and appropriate money
derived from taxation for the support of high schools. The
issue was finally settled in the affirmative by the Supreme
Court of Michigan in the so-called Kalamazoo High School
Case and that decision became the legal precedent.2

NOTE: Consideration of many special phases of the later de-
velopment of secondary education is deferred. Such problems as
the historical relation of the secondary school and the college, the
historical relation between elementary and secondary education,
the historical development of various studies, the historical de-
velopment of the curriculum organization, and like topics are
considered in appropriate later sections.

1 On the whole matter of State aid for secondary education see: Cubber-
ley, E. P., School Funds and Their Apportionment; Snyder, E. R., The
Legal Status of Rural High Schools; Hanger, J. H., " The Legal Status of the
High School," chap, in of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), The Modern High School.

2 30 Michigan 69.

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA *Ul

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. Trace the legal status of the secondary school in America.

2. Trace the development of local or State control of secondary education
in America.

3. In what ways did the academy movement affect secondary education in
America?

4. Trace the development of secondary school controlled or maintained by
religious denominations in America during the past two decades. (Cf.
Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education (1895-96 to
1916.)

5. Trace the development of non-academic subjects in the secondary-
schcol curriculum.

6. Trace changes in the methods of teaching subjects in the secondary
school as indicated by the textbooks employed. (Cf. Inglis, A. J., The
Rise of the High School in Massachusetts, chap, vi.)

7. Trace the development of the academy in any one State.

8. Trace the development of the high school in any one State.

9. Trace the development of rural high schools in any one State.

10. Trace the development of State aid to secondary education in the
United States.

11. Consider any one problem in present-day secondary education and
trace its history.

SELECTED REFERENCES
Boone, R. G., Education in the United States, especially chaps, i, in, v, XV,

XIX, XXI.

Brown, E. E., The Making of Our Middle Schools.

Davis, C. O., Public Secondary Education.

Dexter, E. G., A History of Education in the United States, especially chaps*
i-xiv.

Hinsdale, B. A., Documents Illustrative of American Educational History.

Inglis, A. J., The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts.

Jones, D. R., State Aid to Secondary Schools, University of California Pub-
lications; Education, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 47-150.

Lull, H. G., Inherited Tendencies of Secondary Instruction in the United
States, University of California Publications; Education, vol. 3, no. 3,
pp. 155-281.

Monroe, P., Principles of Secondary Education, chap. n.

Philbrick, J. D., City School Systems in the United States, Bureau of Educa-
tion Circulars of Information (1885), no. 1, especially pp. 22-32, 35-37,
69-89.

Small, W. H., "The New England Grammar School," School Review, voL
x, pp. 513-31; vol. xiv, pp. 42-56.

202 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Snyder, E. R.f The Legal Status of Rural High Schools.

Smith, F. W., The High School; A Study of Origins and Tendencies.

United States Commissioner of Education, Reports.

United States Bureau of Education, Circulars of Information. Several

numbers contain the history of education in various States.
Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, articles on Grammar School, Academy,

High School, etc.

Extended bibliography: Brown E. E., The Making of Our Middle Schools,
pp. 481-518 (to 1905) ; Smith, F. W., The High School; A Study of Origins
and Tendencies, pp. 443^451 (to 1916).

CHAPTER VI

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES

69. The comparative study of secondary education. The
comparative study of institutions for secondary education
in different countries is one of the most effective means of
evaluating theories and practices in any one country. To
the student of secondary education in America some knowl-
edge of the organization of secondary education in foreign
countries is of value for a number of reasons.

(1) The person familiar with but a single type of institu-
tion tends constantly to think in terms of that institution
only, fails to recognize the existence of many problems in-
volved in that institution, and lacks a basis for intelligent
comparison of institutions of different types designed to
accomplish somewhat like and somewhat different purposes.
A basis for the valuation of theories and practices in Ameri-
can secondary education is provided through the study of
theories and practices obtaining in other countries.

(2) Dominant social ideals and the form of social organi-
zation differ in different countries, and the aims and organ-
ization of secondary education should vary accordingly.
Nevertheless certain fundamental social ideals are much the
same in all countries and in all cases secondary education
has some common purposes. A study of the various ways in
which secondary education is organized to achieve those
common ends is suggestive of fundamental theories and
practices for the student of secondary education in America
or any other country.

(3) Many specific problems of theory and practice in-
volved in secondary education in America at the present

204 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

time have in part originated in Europe. Instances may be
found in connection with vocational education, continuation
schools, methods of teaching foreign languages, economy of
time in education, the earlier beginning of secondary edu-
cation, etc. The development of many of these movements
cannot be understood adequately without some knowledge
of conditions affecting secondary education in certain
European countries.

(4) From time to time proposals are made for the adop-
tion in America of certain practices found in other countries.
In some cases those proposals are worthy of serious consid-
eration. In other cases foreign practice is itself misunder-
stood by those who advocate changes in America, or is so
conditioned by factors peculiar to some one country that its
adoption in America would be a gross mistake. The student
of secondary education who is unacquainted with social and
educational conditions in other important countries is at a
disadvantage when called on to estimate the merits and
defects of such proposals.

It is the purpose of this chapter to provide some basis for
the comparative study of secondary education. Space avail-
able limits the number of secondary-school systems which
can be considered and the amount of consideration which
can be given to secondary education in any one country.
Attention will be confined, therefore, to secondary educa-
tion in Germany, France, and England — countries which
are most suggestive to the student of secondary education
in America.

70. Purview of secondary education in other countries.
In different countries the organization of education is so
varied that it is very difficult to make general statements
concerning the institutions for secondary education. In
many foreign countries two or more systems of education
run somewhat parallel, separated by lines of social or

IN OTHER COUNTRIES

205

TABLE LXXXIII. STATISTICS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS*

Countries

Year of
report

Types of secondary schools

Schools

Pupils

Austria-Hungary .

1910-11

484

162,796

Realschulen

189

62,508

Gymnasia for girls (Austria only)

3,254

Total

697

228,550

8,323

19,765

10,104

Middle-class normal schools

209

Total

173

38,401

Bulgaria

1911-12

Gymnasia

16,487

Lower middle schools

316

55,512

Special technical and other schools

155

9,492

Total

518

81,492

Denmark

1910-11

State schools

2,878

Private Latin schools

9,860

Private Realskole

126

17,815

Total

177

30,553

France

1913

Lycees for boys

112

82,879

Communal colleges

231

37,324

Secondary schools for girls

193

38,358

Total

536

138,561

Germany

1911

Gymnasia

524

160,237

223

70,357

167

75,832

Girls' Gymnasia

22,137

Total

953

328,563

Italy

1912-13

Ginnasi

553

49 784

Licei

239

15,136

Total

792

64,920

1913-14

2 817

Middle-class schools

105

15,807

Total

138

18 624

1910-11

338

31 399

1911-12

19 71C

1913

10 401

1912

393

137 594

276

76 971

Gymnasia for girls

779

292,353

Total

1448

506 918

1915

33 071

1914

24 364

1912

17 266

1913-14

316

131 242

High schools for girls

328

82,474

Total

644

13716

* Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. i, pp. 67-1-75.

£06 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

economic cleavage. In few countries other than the United
States, Canada, and Japan is secondary education se-
quentially related to elementary education. Nevertheless
Table LXXXIII may serve as an introduction to the con-
sideration of secondary education in other countries. The
reader is warned that in no country can the character of
secondary education and its scope be appraised accurately
from the data given.

Secondary schools in the countries of Continental Europe
are for the most part modeled on the type of the German
Gymnasium and Realschule or on the type of the French
lycee, so that the more extended consideration given to the
schools of Prussia and of France in later sections will illus-
trate the general principles of organization and education
in many other countries of Continental Europe. Secondary
education in England is of a noticeably different character
than that of Continental Europe and will be given separate
attention.

I. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA

71. The organization of school systems in Prussia.
The German Empire comprises a number of more or less
independent States (kingdoms, grand duchies, principali-
ties, etc.), each of which controls its own system of education.
In this respect the situation in Germany is somewhat the
same as in the United States, where each State has entire
control over its system of schools. However, since Prussia
has about two thirds of the population of the German Em-
pire, includes approximately two thirds of the total area, and
has assumed a commanding lead in educational matters as
well as in most political matters, the treatment of educa-
tion in Germany given in the following sections will deal
specifically with the Prussian schools as the type, with occa-

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 207

sional references to differing conditions found in other
States of the Empire.

Although there is no centralized system of educational
control in the Empire as a whole, the administration is rather
highly centralized in separate States. Thus, in Prussia the
central authority is vested in the Minister of Religious and
Educational Affairs who is responsible to the King alone.
In the ministry under his charge are three departments, one
for religious affairs and two for educational affairs — com-
mon schools and higher schools being controlled by different
departments. In each of the twelve provinces which com-
pose the Prussian Kingdom is a provincial school board
having almost entire charge of all higher schools within the
province. Through the department for higher schools in the
State Ministry, through the provincial boards, and through
the examining commissions, the centralized State control of
higher schools is practically complete. The result is a system
of standardized higher schools throughout the Kingdom of
Prussia, manifesting a degree of uniformity in organization,
administration, curricula, and all other matters, which is
without parallel in any American State. Local school boards
play an insignificant role in the control of higher schools.
Municipalities may assume the initiative in the establish-
ment of their own schools, but in such case they must con-
form to the regulations of the provincial boards. They may
decide what type of school shall be established, but once
established the school must conform in every way to the
minimum requirements set. Local authorities may select
their own teachers, but the selection must be made from a
list of eligibles prepared by the higher authorities. In all
cases the action of the local boards is determined by stand-
ards set up by higher authorities, and once the school is
established little is left for the local authorities except to see
that the work of the school f ulfills the demands set by State

208 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

and provincial officers and see that bills are paid. Their
control over the professional side of the work of the school
is nil.

72. The place of " higher schools " in Prussian education.
In no State of the German Empire is there a division of
elementary and secondary schools at all similar to that
found in America. In Prussia there are really three almost
entirely separate systems of schools: (a) schools for boys
and girls of the common people, of which the basis is the
" People's School " ( Volksschule) ; (6) higher schools for boys
of the upper classes (Hohere Knabenschule) ; (c) higher
schools for girls of the upper classes ( Hohere Madchenschule).
Boys and girls of the lower classes enter the Volksschule at
the age of six and continue there until they are about four-
teen, after which, if they continue their school education,
they enter continuation or vocational schools, middle
schools, etc. Boys of the upper classes enter the higher
school proper at the age of nine or ten and continue there
for a six-grade course or a nine-grade course. To most of
the higher schools for boys are attached three-grade prepar-
atory divisions (Vorschule) in which boys are trained from
the age of six to the age of nine and then pass directly into
the higher school proper. Theoretically there is articulation
between the third grade of the Volksschule and the first
grade of the higher school for boys. Practically there is
almost no articulation between the systems. Girls of the
upper classes enter the Hohere Madchenschule at the age of
six and remain there for twelve or more years according
to the course chosen in the latter part of the school.

A more detailed description of the various higher schools
will be given later. From this preliminary description, how-
ever, it should be clear that for different groups of pupils
in Prussia elementary and secondary education (in the Amer-
ican sense of the terms) are combined in each of the three

IN OTHER COUNTRIES

209

systems mentioned. No greater mistake could be made
(and it is a common mistake) than to confuse the Volksschide
(also called the Elementarschide) with the elementary school
in the American sense of the term, and to confuse the
Hohere Schule with the secondary school in the American
sense.

73. Higher schools for boys in Prussia. Higher schools
for boys in Prussia are of three types: (1) the Gymnasium
and Progymnasium, which are essentially classical schools
of the older type; (2) the Realgymnasium and Realprogym-

TABLE LXXXIV.

PROGRAM OF STUDIES IN THE PRUSSIAN
GYMNASIUM*

UIII

0/77

UII

077

Total

Religion

2
3
8

2
2
8
6
2
2
1
3
2

2
3
7
6
3
2
1
4)
2$

2
3

7£
6f

3
(3

2
3

7f
6)

\3
V

2
3

7l
6j

19
26
68
36
20
17
9
34
18
4
8

259

27
(18)

German*

Latin

Greek

French. . . .

2
2
4

Historya

Geography. . . .
Mathematics. .
Natural science
Writing

2
4
2
2

2
4
2
2
2

Drawingb. . .

Total

3
2

(2)

3
(2)

(2)

Gymnastics . . .
Singing0. .

NOTES: a. In the study of German for VI and V one hour per week is devoted to his-
torical stories.

b. Drawing is optional two hours per week each in U II to O I.

c. After V singing is required of those possessing ability only.

Brackets denote that a redistribution of time is permissible.

Hebrew and English are optional for two hours per week in each of years

O U to O I.

* Lehrplane imd Lehraufgaben fiir die hoheren Schulen in Preusien (Berlin, 1901), pp. 5-7.
The six-grade schools have exactly the same programs as those of the nine-grade schook
from VI to U IL

nasium, which are in part classical and in part modern; (3)
the Oberrealschide and Realschule, which emphasize modern
studies. The Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oberreal-
schule are nine-grade schools. The Progymnasium, Real-
progymnasium, and Realschule are six-grade schools whose
curricula correspond exactly to those of the respective nine-
grade schools.1 Boys completing the six-grade course, if
they continue their education, enter the seventh grade of
the corresponding nine-grade school.

Boys enter the preparatory department (Vorschule) of
the higher school at the age of six and, after three years of
study there, enter the higher school proper at the age of
nine or ten. The complete higher school course has nine
grades beginning with Sexta (the lowest, VI), and proceeding

TABLE LXXXV. PROGRAM OF STUDIES m THE PRUSSIAN
REALGYMNASIUM *

U11I

07/7

UII

077

U I

Total

Religion

3
4

2
3
8

2
3
7
5

2
3
5
4
3
2
2
5
2

2
3
4
4
3
2
1
5
4

2
3
4

5
5

2
3
4

5
5

2
3
4
41

3}
(3

1 •
5
5

19
28
49
29
18
17
11
42
29
4
16

German a.

Latin

French

English

History3

2
2
4
2

Geography
Mathematics . .
Natural science
Writing

2
4.
2
2

2
4

2
2
2

Drawing

Total

262

NOTES: a. Music and gymnastics as in Gymnasium. Other notes as in Gymnasium, ex-
cept that drawing (geometrical) is optional two hours per week from O III on.

* Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben fur die hoheren Schulen in Preussen (Berlin, 1901), pp. 5-7,

Minor differences may be allowed in the Realschule.

IN OTHER COUNTRIES

211

through Quinta (V), Quarto, (IV), Unter-tertia (U III),
Ober-tertia (O III), Unter-sekunda (U II), Ober-sekunda
(O II), Unter-prima (U I), and Ober-prima (O I). Thus the
close of the six-grade school or course comes at the end of
Unter-sekunda.

The character of the different types of higher schools for
boys may be seen best from the programs presented in
Tables LXXXIV, LXXXV, and LXXXVI. The headings
refer to the classes or grades mentioned and the figures
refer to the number of periods per week devoted to the
various studies.

TABLE LXXXVI. PBOGBAM OF STUDIES IN THE PRUSSIAN
1 OBERBEALSCHULE *

UIII

OIII

U II

Oil

U 1

Total

Religion

3
5
6

2
4
6

2
3
6
5

2
2
6

2
3
6

4
2
2
5
4

2
3
Bl

2
1
5
6

2
4
4)

3
1
5
6

2
4
4)
4f
3
1
5
6

2
4
41
4j
3
1
5
6

19
34
47
25
18
14
47
36
6

GermEna

French

English

History8 ......

2
6

2
2

Geography ....
Mathematics . .
Natural science
Writing

2
5

2
2

2
5

Freehand draw-
ini?

2
30

Total

262

NOTES: Same as for the Realgymnasium.
* Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben fur die hoheren Schulen in Preussen (Berlin, 1901), pp. 5-7.

A tabulation of the total number of periods per week
devoted to the various studies shows the difference between
the three types of schools.

212 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE LXXXVII

Gymnasium

Realgymnasium

Obenealsckule

Religion

German

Latin

Greek

French

English

(+ 6)

History

Geography

Mathematics

Natural science

Writing

Drawing

8 (+9)

16 ( + 10)

16 (+ 10)

Totals

259

262

The Gymnasium of to-day is the lineal descendant of the
old classical Gymnasium established before the Reformation.
To it attaches all the prestige and support which comes from
reverence for an old-established institution, and, since it
receives the support of the military and aristocratic classes,
it is preeminently the socially "select" higher school for
boys in Germany. It has been mentioned in the preceding
chapter that the movement away from the narrow classicism
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was marked
in Germany in the middle of the eighteenth century by
the beginning of "real" schools (Realschuleri) . Their early
promise was soon checked, however, and in spite of attempts
at reform during the early part of the nineteenth century
it was not until the ministerial order of 1859 that the mod-
ern movement for the newer types of schools was officially
recognized by the institution of the Realschule Erste Ord-
nung and the Realschule Zweite Ordnung. The first of these
schools was permitted to offer a full nine-grade course and

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 213

later developed into the Realgymnasium. The second of those
schools was a six-grade school. The Oberrealschule was
created by adding three grades to that six-grade Realschule
in 1882. After the establishment of the Oberrealschule the
Realgymnasium in the opinion of many became a rather
useless institution and in the Conference of 1890 its dis-
continuance was recommended by a majority vote. The
recommendation was not carried out, however, and the
Realgymnasium continues to exist as a higher school occupy-
ing a position midway between the Gymnasium and the
Oberrealschule. In 1870 for the first time those who had
passed the "leaving examination" (Abiturientenprufung)
of the Realschule Erste Ordnung (later the Realgymnasium)
were given access to the university, though to certain courses
only. This privilege was extended to the students of the
Oberrealschule in 1892 but it was not until the imperial edict
of 1900 that limitations were removed and the three types
of higher schools placed on practically an equal footing in
Prussia.

74. "Reform Schools" in Germany. The limited articu-
lation between the three types of higher schools for boys in
Prussia and the consequent necessity for early decision as
to the school or course to be pursued by any boy has led
within recent years to attempts to modify existing institu-
tions. As a result there have developed Reformgymnasien
which have introduced two new principles: (a) the prin-
ciple of a common foundation in the lower grades; (6) the
principle of bifurcation in the upper grades. This means
that the decision of an educational choice may be post-
poned for some years and that two or more courses may
be offered in one institution.

Two general types of Reformgymnasien are found — the
Frankfurt system and the Altona system. Of these the
Frankfurt system provides a common foundation in the

214 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

earlier grades for gymasial and realgymnasial courses, and
the Altona system provides a common foundation for real-
gymnasial and realschule courses. The reforms inaugurated
by these two systems are so important that they deserve
some detailed consideration. The official program for the
Frankfurt system is as follows:

TABLE LXXXVIII. THE FBANKFURT PROGRAM *

Subjects

Lower
Division

Middle Division

Upper Division

Gymnasium

Realgymnasium

V 111

0111

Ull

Oil

J7/

Ull

O//

tf/

Religion

3
5

2
4

2
3
(G2
}R4
JGIO

}R s

2
3
G21
R45
GW)
R B\

2
3

8
8

2
3

8
8

2
3

8
8

2
3

8
8

2
3

3
6

2
3

3
6

2
3

3
6

German.
French

Latin

Greek

English

6
1
2
4

4
1
2
5

4
1

2
5

Geography. . .
History

2
3
5

2
4
2

2
4

2
3

3
4

Mathematics..
Nature study..
Writing

5
2

2
2
2

Drawing

2
3

2
2
2

Physics

Chemistry. . . .

* Statislitches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schvlen (1913-14), p. 1012, 8. G = Gymnasium,
R = Itealgymnasium.

It is to be noted here that all pupils take the same course
in the first three grades and that the work in grades Unter-
tertia and Obertertia differs only in the distribution of time
between Latin and French. Thus differentiation is prac-
tically postponed until the boy is the age of about fourteen.

IN OTHER COUNTRIES

215

This type of school has become popular in Prussia, 133
having been established in that state by 1912. *

TABLE LXXXIX. THE ALTONA PROGRAM *

Subjects

Foundation

Realschule

Realgymnasium

2
3
5
4

UIH

0777

f/77

0/7

Religion

3
4
6

2
3
6

2
3
6
5

2
3
6
4

2
3
5
5

2
2
4
3
6

4
5

2
2
4
3
6

3
4

2
3
4
3
5

3
5

2
3
4
3
5

3
4

2
3
4
3
5

3
5

2
3
4
3
5

3
5

German

French

English

Latin

History and Geo-
graphy. . .

3
5

2
2

3
5

2
2

4
6
2

3
5

Mathematics . . .
Nature study . . .
Writing

Drawing

2
2

2
3

2
2

2
3

2
2

Physics

Chemistry. . . .

* Siaiittitches Jahrbuch der koheren Schulen (1913-14), p. 1012, 8.

The Altona system has not proved very popular, there
being but five in Prussia in 1912, some of which have
changed to the Frankfurt plan since then.

According to figures presented in the Kommunales Jahr-
buch for 1913-14 there were 184 Reformschiden in Germany
in 1912, Prussia having 133.2 In spite of the rapid develop-
ment of such schools, however, the older types of separated
schools are dominant. How far they may be able to with-
stand the encroachment of the Reformschulen must remain
for the future to determine.

1 Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen (1913-14), p. 1012, 9.

2 Kommunales Jahrbuch (1913-14), p. 362. Cf. Statistisches Jahrbuch
(1913-14), pp. 1012, 9-10.

216 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

75. Higher schools for girls in Prussia. In considering
the higher schools for girls in Prussia two important facts
must be kept in mind. The first is that higher education for
girls is a matter of recent development, its present organiza-
tion beginning with the regulations of 1908. Hence higher
education for girls in Prussia must be considered to be in a
formative and experimental stage. The second fact is that
higher education for girls is separate from that for boys
and different in organization. Coeducation is practically
unknown in Prussia.

The central institution for the higher education of girls
is the Lyzeum, which offers education, elementary and sec-
ondary in the American sense of the terms, for girls from the
age of six to the age of sixteen. Superimposed on this course
is the Oberlyzeum which comprises two courses, one the
Women's School (Frauenschule) with a two-grade course,
designed to provide training in household and kindergarten
arts, the other the Teachers' Training School (Hoheres
Lehrerinnenseminar) with a four-grade course, designed to
train teachers for the lower schools. In addition, for girls
who plan to enter the university, there are higher-course
schools (Studienanstalteri) which are essentially university
preparatory schools. These correspond somewhat to the
courses for boys in the Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and
Oberrealschule and are called by corresponding names. Girls
taking the Oberrealschule course are transferred from the
Lyzeum at the close of the eighth grade (minimum age four-
teen years). Girls taking the Gymnasial or Realgymnasial
course are transferred from the Lyzeum at the close of the
seventh grade (minimum age thirteen years). Thus the
Gymnasial and Realgymnasial courses for girls have six
grades and the Oberrealschule course has five grades, all
having a common basis in the Lyzeum.

The general organization of higher schools for girls may

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 217

be seen from the following diagram and the program for the
Lyzeum.

TABLE XC. THE ORGANIZATION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS FOB
GIRLS IN PRUSSIA *

Age 678 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Grade X IX VIII VII VI V IV
Lyzeum

n i f n i

I Frauenschule

1 HI n 1 Sem.

( Lehrerinnenseminar

• v iv m n n

Oberrealachule Course
|i

Ober-

IV III II 1

IV III II I

nasial Course

aastalten

• Adapted from Statislischea Jahrbuch der kdkeren Schvlen (1913-14), p. 1012, 7.

In the Frauenschule the course of study comprises peda-
gogy (two hours per week in each of the two grades), house-
hold arts, including practical work (five periods per week
in each grade), kindergarten teaching, including practice
work (four periods per week hi each grade), hygiene and the
care of children, including practical work in nurseries, etc.
(four periods per week hi each grade), civics and economics,
including visits to institutions (two periods per week in
each grade), household bookkeeping (one period per week hi
each grade), needlework (two periods per week in each
grade), and religion, German, French, English, Latin,
Italian, history, geography, science, history of art, gymnas-
tics, drawing and painting, music (each subject according
to circumstances and needs; two periods each per week).

In the Hoheres Lehrerinnenseminar the course of study
includes three years of academic continuation work and one
year of practical work. The studies of the three first years
comprise religion, German, French, English, history, geo-
graphy, mathematics, natural science, pedagogy, method

218 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE XCI. COURSE OF STUDY IN THE PRUSSIAN LYZEUM *
a. Literary and Scientific Subjects

Lower stage

Middle stage

Upper stage

Total

Vlll

VII

III

VII-I

Religion

3
9

3
6
6

3
5
5

3
5

2
4
4
4
2
2
3
3

2
4
4
4
3
2
3
3

17
32
32
16
13
14
21
17

German. . . .

French

English

History*

2
2
3
2

2
2
3

Geography . .

2
3

Mathematics
Natural Science .

Totals

162

b. Technical Subjects

Writing

Drawing

(h)'

Needlework
Singing. . .

2
1

2
9,

(c)

6(14)
14

Gymnastics

Totals. . .

7(9)

55 (63)

NOTES: a. Including art history.

b. In classes X-VIII occasional drawing and clay modeling during the object

lessons in German.

c. Needlework is optional in the upper classes.

* From Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, vol. m, pp. 86-87.

and model lessons, drawing, singing, gymnastics. The work
of the practical year comprises method and model lessons,
practice teaching, reports, and discussions.

In the Studienanstalten the courses of study correspond
in general to the courses of study in the boys' higher schools,

IN OTHER COUNTRIES

219

though the entire course, including the Lyzeum grades,
covers thirteen years instead of twelve and the number of
recitations per week is somewhat smaller. Few higher girls'
schools maintain Studienanstalten, however, and many girls
find it practically impossible to secure the kind of education
provided in such institutions. Since that is the only avenue
of approach, they are unable to prepare themselves for work
in the university.

76. Statistics of higher schools in Germany. In 1912
there were 1395 higher schools for boys in Germany, dis-
tributed as follows:

TABLE XCn. DISTRIBUTION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS FOR
BOYS nsr GERMANY IN 1912 *

State*

Gymna-
fien

Real-
gymna-
sien

Oberreal-
schulen

Progym-
nasien

Real-

progym-
nasien

Real-
schulen

Totalt

Prussia. ...

339

143

167

833

Bavaria

141

Saxony

Wiirttemberg

Baden

Other States

210

Totals

525

214

163

355

1395

• Statittischei Jahrbuch der huheren Schukn (1913-14), p. 1012, 5.

From these figures it is evident that the Gymnasium with
its classical curriculum is still the most prominent of the
higher schools for boys.

In Prussia the boys in attendance at the higher schools
were distributed, as shown in Table XCIII, in 1912.

In 1909 the distribution of boys according to grade was
as shown in Table XCIV.

About one half of the boys who enter Sexta of the Gym-
nasium or Progymnasium apparently continue into Ober-

TABLE XCIH. DISTRIBUTION OF BOYS IN HIGHER SCHOOLS
IN PRUSSIA IN 1912 *

103,314

3,787

Both

107,101

50,319

Realprogymnasien . . .

4,346

Both

54,665

41 986

32,421

Both

74,407

195 619

Six-grade schools ....

40,554

Total

235,173

* Statiilisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen (1913-14), p. 1012, 5.

TABLE XCIV. f

Grade

UIII

01 II

VII

13,616

Total

36,949

34,697

34,492

31,184

27,619

23,775

10,222

8,304

220,959

t Cf . Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, vol. in, p. 84.

TABLE XCV. STATISTICS OF HIGHER SCHOOLS IN GERMANY
IN 1911 J

School*

Teachers

Pupils

Public

Private

Public

Private

Public

Private

Schools having a nine-year course . .

914

524
223
167

1,186

81
63
629
413

828

39
789

6
3

124

7
1
103
13

373

5
S68

16,950

9,769
3,708
3,473

7,230

570
384
5,037
1,239

12,398

1,039
11,359

221

157
31
33

975

36
3
903
S3

4,599

64
4,535

306,426

160,237
70,357
75,832

170,908

9,509
7,252
104,457
49,690

234,461

22,137
212,324

2,905

2,451
304
150

16,562

1,095
32

14,989
466

79,679

1,399

78,280

Schools having a six-year course only

Realschulen, Btlrgerschulen, etc. .

Gytnnasion

Higher schools

Grand totals

2,928

512

36,578

5,795

711,795

99,146

t Figures quo
irol. i, p. 822.

ted from Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1913),

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 221

seJcunda and about one third continue into Oberprima. Of
boys who enter Sexta of the Realgymnasium or Realprogym-
nasium about one third continue into Obersekunda and about
one sixth into Oberprima. Of boys who enter Sexta of the
Oberrealschule or Realschule about one sixth continue into
Obersekunda and a little over one sixteenth continue into
Oberprima. Of all boys entering Sexta of a higher school
a little over one third persist as far as Obersekunda and
between one quarter and one fifth continue into Oberprima.

Table XCV presents figures for all higher schools in
Germany in 1911.

77. " Intermediate schools," etc., in Germany. As it is
a great mistake to consider all the work of the "higher
schools" of Germany as involving secondary education in
the American sense of that term, so it is a great mistake to
consider that all secondary education in Germany is con-
fined to the higher schools above considered. In reality
elementary education in the American sense of the term
must be conceived as cutting a cross-section through the
lower grades of all the higher schools previously considered
and the Volksschule. Likewise secondary education in the
American sense of the term must be conceived as cutting a
cross-section through the upper grades of the higher schools
above considered and also through a number of other
schools, including the Intermediate Schools (Mittelschuleri) ,
"Citizens' Schools" (Burgerschulen, which are closely allied
to the Realschuleri), certain vocational schools (including
agricultural schools, Lantvnrtschaftsschulen, higher trade
schools, etc.), continuation schools (Fortbildungsschuleri),
etc. What proportion of the work in these last-mentioned
schools should be considered of secondary grade in the
American sense of the term it is impossible to determine.
Nevertheless the fact should not be overlooked that much
of the work peculiar to secondary education in America is

222 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

provided for in schools other than the higher schools com-
monly classed under the head of "secondary schools" in
Germany. Vocational education, for instance, is not pro-
vided for at all in the Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, Ober-
realschule, etc., but is relegated to special vocational schools.

In Prussia, previous to the regulations of February 3,
1910, the intermediate school (Mittelschule} had been devel-
oped less extensively than in other States of the Empire.
Since the promulgation of those regulations, however, the
Mittelschule has given promise of extensive development in
Prussia and may in the future prove an important step in
the articulation of the Volksschule system and the higher
schools system. They comprise a nine-grade course which
in the lower stages have a common course with the Volks-
schule and in the higher grades may be articulated with the
higher schools. The course includes the following studies:
religion, German, Latin, French, English, history, geography,
mathematics, nature study, and other common subjects.1

The importance of continuation schools in Germany may
be seen from the figures presented in the following table.

TABLE XCVL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS m GERMANY nsr 1911 *

Schools

Pupil*

Industrial continuation schools

3,300

550,000

Commercial continuation schools

700

102,000

Agricultural continuation schools

5,200

84,000

Non- vocational continuation schools

16,000

700,000

Total listed

25,200

1,436,000

* Cf. Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1918), vol. n, p. 818. The
figures are in round numbers.

1 Cf. Monroe, P., Cyclopedia, of Education, vol. in, p. 78; Statistisches
Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen (1913-14), p. 2280 ff.\ Kommunales Jahr-
buch (1913-14), p. 360.

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 223

The organization of other vocational schools in the
German States is too complicated to permit analysis
here. It should be recognized, however, that they play
an important part in the educational systems of the
Empire of great importance to the student of secondary
education.

78. Teachers in Prussian higher schools for boys. All
teachers in the public higher schools of Prussia are State
employees who have been certificated by the State author-
ities. In order to secure such positions they must have
shown their qualifications : (a) by presenting a leaving cer-
tificate from a Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, or Oberreal-
schide; (6) by presenting evidence that they have spent at
least six semesters at a recognized university; (c) by pas-
sing examinations in philosophy (including psychology),
pedagogy, German literature, religion, and in the special
subjects to be taught (at least two subjects must be in-
cluded); (d) by spending a Seminarjahr (year in practice
and observation); (e) by spending a Probejahr (trial year).
Having met these requirements successfully, the candidate
is then qualified for appointment and receives the title Ober-
lehrer. Older teachers may receive the title Professor. The
salary of the Oberlehrer begins at 2700 marks ($675) and by
triennial increases of 700 marks ($175) reaches 4800 marks
($1200) after nine years of service. From that point the
triennial increases of 600 marks ($150) bring it up to 7200
marks ($1800) after twenty-one years of service. To this
must be added from 560 to 1300 marks ($140-$325) allowed
as compensation for rent. These figures apply to the salaries
of the ordinary teachers in boys' higher schools. Salaries
of headmasters are not much higher than those of the higher
teachers. In the higher schools for boys men teachers only
are engaged. In the higher schools for girls both men and
women teachers are employed, the latter having been pre-

224 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

pared either at the universities or in the higher normal
school (Hoheres Lekrerinnenseminar} .

The training of the higher-school teacher is thorough and
adequate. His selection and certification are carefully super-
vised. From those two facts result the high character of the
teachers employed and the excellent teaching found. In
spite of what appears to Americans to be a relatively low
salary schedule, an abundance of excellent material is
recruited. This arises in large part from the fact that the
higher-school teacher in Germany is recognized as a pro-
fessional official of the Government with a social and official
position on a par with other higher professions.

79. Higher schools and the social organization. The
schools of Germany are intimately and functionally related
to the social structure to an extent not apparent in most
countries. As evidence of this in Prussia we may note first
the well-organized and standardized work of the schools
under rather high centralization of control and adminis-
tration, typical of the efficient organization of social and
economic institutions in the State. Secondly, we may note
the lines of social distinction manifest in the social organi-
zation of the Prussian State and exemplified in the separa-
tion of the Volksschule and the higher schools.1 Thirdly,
we may note the powerful influence of the aristocratic and
military classes in their struggle to maintain the supremacy
of the aristocratic Gymnasium throughout the nineteenth
century and the present status of that school. In the fourth
place, we may note the characteristic German attitude
toward women manifest in the failure until recently to pro-
vide higher education for girls. In the fifth place, we may

1 As this book goes to press, there is evident in German pedagogical
journals renewed agitation for the reorganization of German schools so
as to establish an Einheitschule providing a common educational founda-
tion for all pupils up to the ags of twelve. Cf. Kandel, I., School and
Society, vol. v, p. 3.

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 225

note the specific points of social organization in connection
with the relation of the schools to the social and industrial
phases of German life. These are manifest best, perhaps,
in the various social, military, professional, and educational
privileges granted to boys who have successfully completed
specified parts or all the work of the higher schools.

Boys who successfully complete the work of the first six
grades of a higher school receive a certificate which entitles
them to serve but one year in the army instead of two or
more required of others. Also such boys have the privilege
within limits of choosing the time of their military service,
the regiment hi which they may serve, and other privileges
of a military nature. In addition, since that certificate indi-
cates a recognized standard of training, it is an indispensable
requirement for many minor Governnent positions, and in
many respects it functions much as a part of a civil service
system. Hence also many mercantile houses require the
possession of such a certificate of all their apprentices in
many lines. Thus the acquirement of this certificate estab-
lishes a well-determined point of demarcation in the higher-
school system at the close of the sixth grade, noticeable not
only in the organization of the six-grade schools, but also in
the falling off of pupils at that point in the nine-grade schools. l

At the end of the nine-year course comes the "maturity"
examination (Reifeprufung). The passing of that examina-
tion gives the boy the right of admission to the university
or higher technical school, and a higher social recognition
than he can otherwise secure. Since practically the only
avenue to the higher professions lies through the university,
it cannot be entered save by first completing the course of
study in a higher school.2

1 Table XCIV.

2 For details of the privileges granted to boys completing various amounts
of work in the higher schools of Germany see Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren
Schulen (1913-14) . Cf . also Russell, J. E., German Higher Schools, Appendices.

226 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Such privileges offer to the German boy and his parents
an appeal that can scarcely be appreciated by the American.
The ambitious parent struggles hard to give his son the
benefits of an education in the higher school, although the
financial burden of tuition alone is not always light. Con-
trary to the American practice, but quite in accord with
European practice, higher-school education is not free in
Germany and tuition is regularly charged, the maximum in
Prussia being 150 marks ($37.50) per annum.

80. Secondary education in Germany and America.
Though the limits of space have permitted only a general
outline of secondary education in Germany, sufficient data
have been presented to indicate a number of important
differences between secondary education in Prussia and in
the United States. Some of the more important differences
may be summarized here, though the reader should be
warned that fundamental differences in organization make
difficult comparisons which are frequently made.

(1) Attention has already been called to the fact that
"elementary education" and "secondary education" are
not delimited in Germany as in America by administrative
divisions. Elementary education in the American sense of
the term is provided in each of the three systems of edu-
cation previously outlined. Secondary education in the
American sense of the term is provided especially in the
two systems of boys' and girls' higher schools, but also to
some extent in the intermediate schools and in vocational
schools which are more directly correlated with the Volks-
schule. To gain a purview of elementary education one must,
therefore, examine a cross-section through all three systems
of schools, and to gain a purview of secondary education
one must examine the higher grades of the three systems.
In either case it is quite impossible to designate a specific
grade as the beginning of secondary education, which must

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 227

be conceived as developing gradually out of the lower stages
of education and without any line of clear demarcation.
One of the most noteworthy features of the German school
systems is the fact that whatever school system a boy or
girl enters he proceeds gradually and without abrupt tran-
sition from stage to stage.

(2) Notwithstanding the above-mentioned facts it is true
that "secondary education" begins at an earlier age and
that differentiated education begins much earlier in Ger-
many than in America. Here we may, in some respects at
least, agree with a German critic: "Admittedly, the second-
ary school in north Germany begins too early, when it starts
at nine years of age; but just as surely does the American
secondary school begin too late." x This problem will be
considered in a later section.

(3) Lines of social and economic cleavage are much more
manifest and important in the schools of Germany than in
the United States. This is clear from the separation, even
in the earlier stages, of children in the Volksschule and the
Hohere Schulen, in the fact that no form of vocational edu-
cation is provided in the higher schools for boys, and in the
fact that a relatively small number of boys and girls are
enrolled in the higher schools. Confessedly, the German
higher schools are designed not for people in general, but
for special groups. Selection, a legitimate function of
secondary education, becomes in German higher schools
selection by elimination or exclusion, whereas in America
it becomes selection by differentiation of courses and studies
to meet the needs of individual differences. Because of dif-
ferences in organization exact comparison between the-
"higher schools" of Prussia and the public high schools
of the United States becomes difficult, if not impossible.

1 Kerschensteiner, G., A Comparison of Public Education in Germany and
in the United States, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1913), no. 24, p. 13.

228 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Considering higher schools for boys alone in Prussia and
the public high schools in the United States, we may note
the following figures :

TABLE XCVII. NUMBER OF BOYS PER 100,000 OF TOTAL POPU-
LATION IN THE HOHERE ScHULEN OF PRUSSIA AND IN THE

PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1909 *

Theoretic age 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 Total

Americanhighschools....)^--;;;;; i »6 HI IV I-IV

T, . ..... , ,„ (Grade... . U II Oil UI OI U II O I

Prussmn higher schools . { Number 59 34 26 22 115

* Compiled by the writer from data in Table XCIV and in Report of the United, States
Commissioner of Education (1910), vol. u.

(4) Fixity of curriculum is the rule in German schools
and flexibility is the rule in the American high school. In
Germany the pupil chooses his school, in America he chooses
his course or even his specific studies. In Germany, after
a decision has been made as to the type of school to be
attended, there is practically little opportunity for transfer
to another type of school. This rigidity is all the greater
because there is little opportunity for choice of studies
within any higher school and the curriculum is the same for
all. The contrast is noticeable with the elective system found
in America. It is possible that the elective system has been
carried too far in this country, but it would appear to the
American educator that it has not been carried far enough
in Prussia. The development of the Reformgymnasien in
Germany indicates a strong tendency to modify the school
system so as to postpone to a later age and grade the deci-
sion of the curriculum to be engaged in by the pupil in the
higher school.

(5) While secondary education in America may, perhaps,
be considered more extensive than secondary education in
Prussia in point of the number of individuals that it reaches
and in point of the differentiated scope of its offerings, it

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 229

must also be noted that secondary education in Prussia
(at least in the Hohere Schulen) is more intensive in the
sense that it is more thorough and systematic. Perhaps the
advantages and disadvantages in either case are necessarily
correlated. The period of formal education covered from
the beginning of school life in both countries is approxi-
mately the same, from age six to age eighteen. The results,
however, appear to be far different. The graduate of the
German higher school is commonly considered to be as far
advanced in his education as boys in the sophomore class
of the American college. This is certainly true of much of his
attainment in subject-matter, and with respect to the char-
acter of his development along academic lines. Doubtless the
reason for much of this is found in the fact that in Germany
there is a longer school day, a longer school week, and a longer
school year. However, it is also in part doubtless due to the
efficiency of instruction. Critics of German and American
school systems frequently note the lack of thoroughness and
the superficiality in American secondary education in com-
parison with the "hard fiber of intellectual discipline" of
the German higher school. Likewise they note the greater
freedom of the American secondary school, the individuality,
initiative, and adaptability engendered by it (or by the
general social stimulus?), in contrast with the rigidity and
uniformity of the German higher school.1 The contrast
should not be considered without reference to the conception
of the intensive, selective aim of the German higher school
and the extensive aim of the American high school. A proper
comparison would be between the best fourth of the Ameri-
can secondary-school pupils and the average pupil in the
German higher school.2 It must further be noted that the
last years of the German higher school take the place of a
part of our college course, which is itself essentially second-
1 Kerschensteiner, G., op. cit., p. 14. 2 Cf. Table XCVII.

230 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ary in character. In this connection attention may be called
to the fact that, while the theoretic age of graduation from
the German higher school for boys is eighteen, the median
age is eighteen years and seven months. Figures for candi-
dates taking the leaving examination of the higher schools
of Prussia in 1908 indicate that more candidates were twenty
years of age or older than were eighteen years of age or
younger, and that the largest age group was that of the
nineteen year olds.1

(6) In the secondary education of girls is found one of the
most noticeable differences between the secondary schools
of Germany and those of the United States. Attention has
already been called to the fact that in Prussia public higher
schools for girls is a matter of development within the past
decade. Again exact comparison in figures is out of the
question because of differences in organization, but we may
note that in all the higher schools for girls in Germany in
1911 there were 234,461 girls distributed over twelve or
thirteen grades, while in the public high schools alone of the
United States in 1910 there were 551,624 girls, distributed
over four grades. Attention has also been called to the fact
that coeducation is all but unknown in Germany.

(7) Probably one of the greatest factors contributing to
the character of the German higher school is found in the
character of the teacher, who, on the average, is far superior
to the American high-school teacher. This is due to a num-
ber of factors — the superior character of the material
available (due in part to the prestige of the teaching profes-
sion in Germany), the high standards set, the training which
the prospective teacher receives, and the high professional
spirit manifest. These standards and conditions are not
paralleled in America. In this connection, however, it is
well to note some circumstances sometimes overlooked.

1 Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, vol. in, p. 85.

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 231

The most important of these is the fact that the unparalleled
development of secondary education in America and the
great increase in the number of secondary-school pupils
during the past quarter-century created a demand for
secondary-school teachers which far exceeded the available
supply of well-prepared men and women. With the high
school now well established and conditions somewhat set-
tled, with better facilities provided for training secondary-
school teachers, and with the establishment of standards
which are now being formulated, the secondary-school
teacher of America should in the near future assume a more
favorable position for comparison with his German colleague.
(8) Back of all the various points of difference in the
American and German school systems lie fundamental
differences in social ideals which must always be kept in
mind when comparing the two systems or when examining
either. In both cases the character of secondary education
is determined fundamentally by social ideals which are
buried deep in the lives and customs of the two peoples.
The efficiency of either system must be interpreted in terms
of the dominant social ideals and the form of social organi-
zation which determine the character of the State itself.

II. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN FRANCE

81. The system of education in France. Of all important
countries France possesses the most highly centralized form
of educational control and administration. In that country
the entire system of public education is under the charge
of the Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts and his
subordinate officials or bureaus. By them the final control
and administration of the schools is determined, the pro-
grams of study organized, the schools inspected, the quali-
fications of teachers prescribed, and the examination of

232 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

pupils controlled. Little is left for local participation in the
affairs of education except a certain amount of initiative
in establishing schools, the administration of certain routine
matters, and the payment of funds in support of the schools.
The local community may decide whether or not a school is
wanted in some cases. They may provide for the construc-
tion, equipment, and maintenance of a school, but once such
a school is established its control and administration passes
out of their hands into the hands of the Ministry of Public
Instruction and Fine Arts.

France, like Prussia, maintains three separate systems
of schools: (a) schools for boys and girls of the common
people, of which the basis is the "primary school" (ecole
primaire); (6) "secondary schools" for boys (lycee de gar-
Qons and college de garqons); (c) "secondary schools" for
girls (lycee de jeunes files, college de jeunes files, and cours
secondaire de jeunes filles) . Boys and girls of the common
people enter the "primary school" proper at the age of five
or six (many have previously attended the ecole maternelle),
where they remain in the ecole primaire elementaire up to the
age of about thirteen or in the ecole primaire superieure up
to the age of about fifteen. Some enter the ecole practique
(vocational school) . Boys of higher social or economic stand-
ing enter the "secondary school" (lycee or college) proper
at about the age of ten and remain there (for the full course)
up to the age of about seventeen. To the "secondary
school" proper, however, there is attached a preparatory
division (division prSparatoire) for boys of ages six to seven,
and an elementary division (division elementaire) for boys
of ages eight to nine. In some cases an "infant class" pre-
cedes the preparatory division. As a matter of fact the
French "secondary school" for boys is an institution com-
plete in itself, being neither dependent on the "primary
school" for its supply of pupils nor leaving education other

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 233

than professional for later study in college or university.
Theoretically pupils may pass from the "primary school"
to the lycee or college and "secondary education is coordi-
nated with primary education in such a way as to follow a
course of primary studies normally four years in length." 1
Practically there is no such articulation between the two
systems and few "primary-school" pupils, except those
receiving Government scholarships through competitive
examinations, pass from the ecole primaire to the ecole
secondaire. The selection of the school which a boy may
enter in France is determined almost entirely by social and
economic factors.

Girls of the higher social and economic classes enter the
"secondary school" proper (lycee, college, or cours secon-
daire) at the age of about twelve. They enter the "primary
classes" of that school, however, at the age of nine, and the
"infant class" which precedes it at the age of eight. They
remain hi the "secondary school" (for the full course) up
to the age of about seventeen or eighteen.

From this limited preliminary description of the three
school systems of France it is apparent that, as in the case
of the Prussian systems, the so-called "secondary schools"
must be considered to include both elementary and second-
ary education in the American sense of those terms and that
the "primary school" of France is not to be considered as
corresponding completely to the "elementary school" of
America. In this connection it is interesting to note that
a plan for a unified national school system was presented
before the Chamber of Deputies in a bill introduced in 1913:

The professed intention of the bill is to establish equality of
opportunity for all children. For this purpose its author would
put an end to the dualism of the existing system which provides

1 Decret du 31 Mai, 1912. Cf. Plan d'Etudes et Programmes de I'En-
seignement Secondaire des Garqons (llth edition), p. 1.

234 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDAEY EDUCATION

for one kind of school for the masses and another for those favored
of fortune, and substitute "the national school," organized in
three cycles. In the plan outlined by M. Buisson, the first cycle is
devoted to elementary primary education to be given uniformly
to all children five to eleven years of age; the second cycle is for
children from eleven to fourteen years of age; in this cycle the
education will be varied according to the requirements or aptitudes
of the pupils, but hi spite of these pedagogic differences perfect
social equality will be maintained; in the third cycle education
will be distinctly vocational (prqfessionelle), the term being used
in the widest sense.1

Whatever may be the likelihood that education in France
will be developed along these lines in the near future, it is
nevertheless true that the intent of the bill represents the
attitude of many people in France toward the existing tri-
partite system of schools, with distinctions based largely
on social and economic considerations.

82. Types of " secondary schools " for boys in France.
The system of "secondary education" for boys in France
at the present time is that inaugurated by the regulations
of May 31, 1902, as modified by the regulations of Novem-
ber 15, 1912, which went into effect in October, 1913.
According to those regulations, two types of "secondary
schools" are recognized, the lycee and the college. These
differ not so much in the character of their courses nor
in their general organization, but in the manner of their
establishment and support. The lycee is entirely a state
school, established, directed, and financed by the National
Government. The college is a secondary school of the same
character in general established and supported by a com-
mune (municipality), but under the surveillance, direction,
and control of the central authorities. Thus schools of both
types are under the direction and administration of the

1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1913), vol. i,
p. 799. Cf. Revue Universitaire (March 15, 1913), pp. 5252-55.

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 235

state and conform to the same general regulations as to
curriculum, organization, administration, etc. While the
two institutions are nominally of equal rank and are de-
signed to provide similar education, the lycee stands higher
in popular estimation and commonly is superior in the char-
acter of the work done. Theoretically at least, uniformity is
the rule in the lycee and college and the same standards obtain
in all parts of the Republic, conf orming to the particular and
minute regulations of the central authorities.

The "secondary" school proper consists of two depart-
ments called cycles, one (premier cycle} of four grades, the
other (seconde cycle) of three grades, — the two (which are
sequentially related) providing education for boys of ages
about ten to seventeen or eighteen. To the first cycle are
commonly attached a preparatory department (division
preparatoire) of two grades (ages six and seven) and an
elementary department (division elementaire) of two grades
(ages eight and nine). In the first cycle, comprising grades
sixth to third, pupils have a choice of two sections (A and
B), Division A studying Latin and Division B not. In the
second cycle, comprising the second, first, and philosophy-
mathematics classes, a choice is offered in classes second and
first of four sections (A, B, C,« D). Roughly those sections
may be classified as: Section A — Classical Course; Section
B — Latin-Modern Language Course; Section C — Latin-
Scientific Course; Section D — Science-Modern Language
Course. In the Philosophy-Mathematics "form" pupils
are divided into two general groups, one concentrating on
philosophy, the other on mathematics, each of these groups
being divided into Sections A and B. The general scheme
may be seen from the plan of organization outlined on
page 236.1

In addition to these regular divisions and sections there
1 Plan d'£tudea, etc., previously cited, p. x jf.

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IN OTHER COUNTRIES 237

may be special sections in the lycee preparing boys for the
military school at Saint-Cyr, the polytechnique, and the
ecole centrale. In some cases also there may be a fifth section
or subsection with a course of three or four years correspond-
ing roughly to the Realschule course in Prussia.

It is to be noted that a much greater amount of flexibility
is to be found in the French higher school for boys than in
the German. The feature of flexibility was established in
the reorganization of the curriculum of the school in 1902,
and its introduction in part may have been due to the in-
fluence of the elective system in the American secondary
school. Speaking of the curriculum established in 1902,
M. Gabriel Compayre, former Inspector General of Public
Instruction in France, said:

The most striking feature is that, in place of one single and
uniform course for all pupils, several are provided for their selec-
tion. Here is obvious the influence of the elective courses common
in the United States, whose existence and success were noticed by
the present writer in the Report on American Secondary Education,
presented after his return from the World Exposition at Chicago to
the Minister of Public Instruction in France in 1893. 1

More detailed analysis of the French lycee is presented
on page 238.

83. Other forms of secondary education in France.
While the term "secondary education" (enseignement
secondaire) is applied in France exclusively to the lycee and
college, certain types of schools also found in France must
be considered as furnishing education more or less secondary
in the American sense. The necessity of providing for an
extension of school facilities for the common people some-
what beyond the primary schools and with special reference
to their industrial needs was recognized as early as the pas-
sage of the Law of 1833 (the Guizot Law) authorizing the
* Cf. Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, vol. n, p. 663.

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IN OTHER COUNTRIES

239

establishment of higher primary schools (I'Scole primaire
superieure). The law had little effect until money was
appropriated by the Government (beginning in 1878). The
real development of the higher primary schools began in
earnest after the passage of the law of 1892 which estab-
lished two different types of such schools, the higher prim-
ary schools and practical schools of commerce and industry.
These higher grade schools may retain pupils up to fifteen
years of age, who for admission have obtained the primary-
school certificate. The higher primary schools are not voca-
tional though offering special courses in drawing, manual
training, and elementary science. The vocational schools
proper (ecoles pratiques) provide for commerce and industry.
The extent of these two types of schools in 1911-12 may be
seen from the following table.

TABLE XCIX. PUPILS m HIGHER PRIMARY SCHOOLS AND
VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS, 1911 *

Boys

Girl*

Total

Higher primary schools and continuation
classes

51 057

51 630

102 687f

Practical schools of commerce and industry . .
National technical schools

10,102
1,588

2,687

12,789
1,588

Total :

62,747

54 317

117 064

* Data from Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1913), vol. I, p. 791,
corrected from data given, ibid. (1914), vol. I, p. 722.

t About one half of these were in continuation classes (court complementaires).

"Thus, altogether, about 118,000 young people of the
industrial classes were continuing their studies in schools
comparable with the upper grades and junior high schools
of the United States." l

1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1914), vol. I,
p. 722.

240 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

84. Secondary education of girls in France. Previous to
1880 there existed no public secondary schools for girls in
France. In that year a comprehensive system of public
secondary schools for girls was established comprising na-
tional lycees, communal colleges, and secondary courses, the
last being but a temporary expediency, paving the way for
the later establishment of a secondary school proper. As
in Germany, "secondary schools" for boys and "secondary
schools" for girls are separate institutions, and in France
they are of a radically different nature.

The "secondary schools" for girls comprise a five-year
course divided into two departments, the first of three grades
and the latter of two grades. Preceding the regular five-
year course, however, there are commonly attached to the
"secondary school" proper a one-year infant class and three
elementary classes. In addition there exists a special class
in some of the most important lycees designed to prepare
girls for the normal school at Sevres.

The curriculum and general organization of the secondary
schools for girls may be seen from Table C.

85. Statistics of " secondary schools " in France. The
figures presented in Table CI will indicate the number of
secondary schools and secondary school pupils in France
in 1912-13 — enrollment for lycees, colleges, and cours
secondaires only.

While the differences in organization make comparisons
difficult, it may be noted that in 1912 there was one "sec-
ondary school" to every 74,579 of the total population as
compared with one public high school for every 8657 of total
population in the United States: that in France in 1912 one
person out of every 291 of total population was in some
secondary school, while in the United States in 1911-12 one
person in every 88 was in a public high school. The com-
parison is all the stronger when it is remembered that in the

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242 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE CI. FRENCH SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND PUPILS IN
1912-13 *

Schools

Pupils

Boys

Girls

Total

Boys

Girls

Total

Lyc6es

112

165

62,092

19,898

81,990

Colleges

230

309

36,796

11,882

48,678

Secondary courses

5,565

Total

342

189

531

98,888

37,345

136,233

* Figures taken from Annuaire Statistique, vol. 32, pp. 26-31, 24 *.

French, secondary schools for boys seven grades or more are
included and in the secondary schools for girls eight or more
grades are included, whereas in the American high school but
four grades are considered. It cannot be considered that the
needs for secondary education in France are being met in any
adequate manner. This is in part due to the social distinc-
tions already referred to, in part to the inadequate provision
for secondary schools, and in part to the fact the secondary
education in France is not free. Combined with those fac-
tors is the fact that the French lycees and colleges are in part
boarding-schools, a fact which seriously affects the matter
of popular education. Approximately one third of the pu-
pils in the lycees and colleges, for boys are boarders or half
boarders. This fact indicates clearly that schools are not
numerous enough nor located centrally enough to meet the
needs of many, and that the cost of living away from home
prevents many boys from receiving the benefits of a second-
ary education. The actual fees charged, however, are not
large from the American viewpoint. In the provincial lycees
the range of fees is from 40 francs ($8) per annum for day

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 243

pupils to 700 francs ($140) per annum for boarders in the
infant classes and from 320 francs ($64) per annum for day
pupils to 1250 francs ($250) per annum for boarders in the
highest classes. In Paris and the larger lycees the fees are
somewhat higher.

86. The secondary-school teacher in France. As in
Germany so in France the character of the teaching staff
stands out in strong contrast to the character of the teaching
staff of the American secondary school. This is due to sev-
eral factors, the principal of which are the training which
the secondary school teacher in France must undergo, the
relatively small number of teachers required, and the esteem
and honor hi which the profession is held. Due in part to
the two last factors the competition for secondary school
positions is so severe that the best material for teachers
is secured through the elimination of the poorer.

In point of professional requirements the minimum
qualifications of a candidate to teach in the secondary
school are: (a) the bachelor's degree from a lycee or college;
(6) two or three years of university or normal-school study.
This accomplished the candidate receives a licence. The
holder of a licence may then become a candidate for the title
of agrege which requires the passing of a severe competitive
examination necessitating at least two years' preparation.
Holders of this title only are appointed to positions in the
lycees where the professeur agrege has a legal right to a posi-
tion as professor with practically life tenure. The standards
for teachers in the college are distinctly inferior to those for
teachers hi the lycee, a fact which to some extent explains
the acknowledged inferiority of the work done in the former.
In the college, in addition to some professeurs agreges and
those holding the master's degree, are found some teachers
holding the bachelor's degree only or those with special
certificates.

244 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Again as in Germany the salaries paid appear small to the
American teacher. All teachers in the secondary schools are
divided into six classes. The teacher must have been at least
two years in service before he is eligible for promotion from
the sixth class (the lowest) into the next class. He must
have been nineteen years in the service before he can be
promoted into the first (highest) class. For full professors
in the lycees (who receive the highest salaries for teaching
alone) the pay ranges in the provincial schools from 3700
francs ($740) to 6700 francs ($1340). In Paris the salary
for the regular professor ranges from 5500 francs ($1100)
to 9000 francs ($1800), professeurs agreges each receiving
500 francs ($100) additional.

Women teachers in the secondary schools for girls secure
appointments by completing the work of the secondary
school and securing its diploma and by securing the agrega-
tion. Ordinarily the certificate to teach in the girls secondary
school is obtained after completing the second year of work
in the normal school and passing competitive examinations.

87. Secondary education and the social organization in
France. France in the not very distant past has at different
periods been a monarchy, an empire, and a republic, and
each of those stages through which French society has
passed has left its mark on the secondary schools of France
at the present time. The social distinctions manifest in the
differentiation between "elementary schools" and "second-
ary schools" is in part at least a result of the days of the
monarchy and aristocratic prestige. The high degree of
centralized control shows the effect of Napoleon's admin-
istration during the First Empire. Recent reorganization
and numerous separate movements indicate an attempt
(rather than its fulfillment) to adapt the secondary schools
to the demands of a modern republic.

A form of secondary education adapted to a republican

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 245

or democratic form of social organization would appear to
postulate at least three important characteristics: (1) schools
free to all children and open to all classes on an equal basis;

(2) schools sufficient in number to afford adequate means
for educating as many children as can attend and so located
that undue expense is not to be incurred by their parents;

(3) schools and courses so diversified as to meet the needs
of all classes of children. In no one of those three important
respects can the French Republic be said to have approached
the solution of democratic or republican education. Fees
are regularly charged; secondary schools are quite insuffi-
cient in number and not satisfactorily distributed; while the
curricula established in 1902 did much to provide flexibility
of studies adapted to the diversified needs of pupils, insuffi-
cient provision has as yet been made for many forms of
education, and in the case of girls unjust discrimination has
been made with regard to provision for education leading to
the university.

88. Secondary education in France and America. Much
that has been said in comparing secondary education in
Germany and in America may also be said in comparing
secondary education in France and America. Thus second-
ary education in France and in Germany differs from that
in America in the following important respects: (a) the
triple school systems running more or less parallel and with-
out effective articulation; (6) the separation of those sys-
tems along lines of social and economic cleavage; (c) the
separation of secondary education for boys and girls; (d) the
earlier beginning of secondary education hi the schools; (e)
the absence of administrative division between elementary
and secondary education in the American sense of those
terms, and the gradual transition from lower to higher
forms of education; (/) the complete separation of vocational
schools from other schools; (gr) the intensive education pro-

246 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

vided in the higher schools leading directly to professional
work in the university without the interposition of college;
(K) the existence of uniform courses of study for all schools
of the same type; (i) the high character of the teaching
staffs; (j) the fact that the number of "higher schools" is
relatively small and that a relatively small number of boys
and girls are enrolled in higher schools other than special
vocational schools, etc.

Go vernmen tally France is republican or democratic:
educationally it is aristocratic. In many respects France
and America have common fundamental problems to solve
through education and in no small degree through secondary
education. As at present organized the secondary schools of
France are better suited to a non-democratic form of society
than to a republic, are more comparable to those of mon-
archal states of Europe than to those of America, and in
organization and administration have little to offer to the
student of secondary education in America.

III. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND

89. Organization of secondary education in England.
In Germany and in France the State control of secondary
education was early assumed and at present is practically
complete, with the result that secondary education in those
countries may be interpreted in terms of organized systems
wherein uniformity and standardization are the rule. In
England, on the other hand, there has always been manifest
a reluctance on the part of the State to assume the respon-
sibility for a real public system of education. Thus it was
not until 1870 that any real system of elementary schools
was inaugurated and it was not until 1902 that any real
progress was made in the establishment of a system of public
secondary schools. Even at present it is scarcely possible

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 247

to speak of a system of secondary schools, but several differ-
ent types or systems must be considered.

In England more than in any other country private initia-
tive has controlled education and particularly secondary
education. From the beginning of secondary education in
that country dominant control in the field of secondary
education has been exercised by the clergy, by corporations
(independent foundations, guilds, etc.), and by individuals.
During the latter half of the nineteenth century municipal-
ities assumed more and more influence. Only within the
past few years has any serious attempt been made to organ-
ize national control over any part of secondary education.

In the following sections two general classes of secondary
schools of England will be considered briefly: (1) Endowed
and private schools, with particular attention to the "great
public schools" of the "first grade"; (2) secondary schools
which have to some extent come within the supervision of
the Government and are on the "grant list" or the list of
"efficient" schools.

90. The "Great Public Schools" of England.1 For more
than five centuries after their beginning in 1382 the "great
public grammar schools" were the dominant institution for
secondary education in England and then* unchallenged
preeminence continues at the present time. In 1867 the

1 The reader familiar with the nomenclature of American schools must
beware of misinterpreting the nomenclature of the English schools. The
term "public" is applied in England to the endowed schools here mentioned
which are just the reverse of the "public schools" of the United States.
Since the majority of those schools are boarding-schools, the American
reader is likely also to misinterpret the term "board schools," which is
regularly applied in England to schools under the control of school boards
and has nothing to do with boarding-schools. The term "grammar schools"
is to be understood from the old Latin grammar school and, of course, has
no reference to the term as employed in the United States for the "gram-
mar" grades of the elementary school. Further, "preparatory schools" in
England prepare for the "great public schools," not for the university as
the "preparatory schools" in America prepare for college.

248 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

British Schools Inquiry Commission placed those schools
in an exclusive class comprising the "first-grade" secondary
schools, a distinction which obtains informally at present.
In this group the following (and no others) were included:
Winchester (founded in 1382), Eton (1440), Shrewsbury
(1552), Westminster (1560), Rugby (1561), Harrow (1571),
Charterhouse (1611), St. Paul's (1509), Merchant Taylors'
(1561). Of these all except the two last-mentioned are
boarding-schools. The historic importance of these schools,
the selected class of their patronage, and the superior char-
acter of the education provided has given them a preeminent
position among the secondary schools not only of England
but of the world, and justifies the view which regards them
as national institutions. They occupy a position in England
that is paralleled by no other institution for secondary edu-
cation in any other country and their influence on English
history and on English society has probably been greater
than any other institution. Any complete analysis of their
place among the schools of England would carry us far
beyond the limitations of our present purpose. We may
note, however, certain material points. Schools of that
type cannot properly be considered as an important part
of a system of public secondary schools which is designed
for boys in general. The opportunity for secondary educa-
tion in such schools must perforce be limited, highly selec-
tive, and restricted. Although they are termed "public
schools," they are essentially private, and stand in strong
contrast to the secondary schools of Germany, France,
and America. It may well be questioned whether the exist-
ence of such highly selective schools not directly controlled
by the State have not acted as a serious check on the develop-
ment of a system of real public secondary schools.

Needless to say, schools of this type are conservatively
classical and are dominated by preparation for entrance to

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 249

the university. Programs of study and organizations differ
for the several schools so that it is impossible to present
even a typical program. Language, especially the ancient
languages, and mathematics all but monopolize the cur-
riculum. According to the specialist in education in foreign
countries (United States Bureau of Education) a typical
program comprises the following subjects: 1

Classical side: Religion, English, Latin, Greek, French, his-
tory, geography, arithmetic, mathematics,
natural sciences, drawing, singing.

Modern side: Mathematics, English, Latin, French, German,
history and geography, natural science, draw-
ing, singing.

Boys enter these schools at the age of thirteen or fourteen
after a "preparatory" course in one of the numerous pri-
vate "preparatory schools" which exist almost solely for the
purpose of preparing boys for admission to the endowed
schools. Nominally there are six "forms " or grades, though
the lowest is frequently omitted and in some schools other
forms are missing. Grading and promotion are flexibly
organized and administered and it is possible for each boy
to pass through the school much according to his individual
ability and application. However, if he reaches the sixth
form early he commonly remains in that grade until about
the age of eighteen or nineteen when he enters the univer-
sity.

91. Other endowed and private secondary schools. In
addition to the nine "great public schools," comprising the
group of "first-grade secondary schools," there is a very
large number of other endowed, proprietary, and private
secondary schools. Some of these endowed schools are of

1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. I,
pp. 676-77.

250 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

a character quite comparable to that of the "first-grade"
schools except, perhaps, in historical and social prestige.
Proprietary and private schools controlled by individuals,
stock companies, etc., range all the way from very good to
very bad. Their varied character prevents anything like
satisfactory analysis in small space. In general these schools
all imitate the great public schools. Some of the best in
every important respect should be ranked on a par with the
"first-grade" schools. At the other extreme are schools
which must be considered as commercial ventures of a per-
nicious character. Between the two extremes are found
schools of all sorts and grades.

92. The old municipal " board " secondary schools.
While there was no serious attempt to develop a national
system of secondary schools in England until the period
1899-1902, and while the numerous endowed and private
secondary schools dominated the field, many municipalities
throughout the country had established public "board"
schools under the control of local authorities. Their char-
acters varied widely according to the different communities,
and uniformity was not to be found. With the beginning
of the development of a national system in 1899-1902 those
"board" schools were merged into schools of the type con-
sidered in the following section.

93. " Grant-list " and " efficient " secondary schools.
The beginning of a system of public secondary schools in
England is found in the creation of a Board of Education
for England and Wales in 1899 which provided a centra!
agency for educational affairs. By the law of 1902 the con-
trol of non-private secondary schools was taken out of the
hands of the older school boards and placed in the hands of
county and county-borough councils. That act provided : l

1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1914), vol. i,
pp. C8G-87.

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 251

The local education authority shall consider the educational
needs of their area and take such steps as seem to them desirable,
after consultation with the board of education, to supply or aid
the supply of education other than elementary, and to promote the
general co-ordination of all forms of education.

In accordance with this law new schools of secondary
character supported by public funds have been established
and others brought within the scope of State-aided second-
ary education. The Board of Education has adopted a
scheme of granting national funds to local schools as a means
of bringing the secondary schools under its supervision and
to some extent under its control. The acceptance of aid
from the Board of Education and submission to its super-
vision is voluntary on the part of the school authorities, but
when the school accepts grant aid it must meet the require-
ments and submit to the supervision of the national author-
ities. This method of increasing the State control of second-
ary education has been successful in American States and
bids fair to establish a real system of secondary schools in
England and Wales. Within about a dozen years after the
beginning of the movement its success has been great.
According to the latest official returns (before the war) the
number of secondary schools in England receiving grants
was 898, including 402 controlled by local authorities, 424
endowed schools, 26 schools belonging to the Girls' Public
Day School Trust, and 46 controlled by Roman Catholic
orders or communities. These schools enrolled 158,832
pupils (85,110 boys, 73,722 girls) and employed 9126 full-
time teachers and about 3000 part-time instructors.1 These
are known as "grant-list" schools. In addition there are
a number of private secondary schools which invite the
inspection of and a certain amount of supervision by the

1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1914), vol. i,
pp. 687-88.

252 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Board of Education but which do not conform entirely to
the requirements for grant aid. These are known as "effi-
cient" schools. Altogether in 1913-14 there were 1176
secondary schools in England, with an enrollment of about
222,275 pupils, in some relation to the Board of Education.1
However, the majority of private schools do not come within
this system.

The reader will not fail to note that the situation in Eng-
land at the present day is somewhat analogous to the situa-
tion in the United States in the middle of the nineteenth
century when the public high school was in the midst of
its struggle for supremacy with the private academy. He
should note also that the regulations of the Board of Edu-
cation provide that a certain proportion of places in the
grant-aided secondary school (ordinarily about twenty-five
per cent) must be open free to the class of children that
attend the public elementary school. Thus, although falling
far short of thoroughly democratic ideals of free public
education, the regulations of the Board of Education have
greatly improved the opportunities of the common people
for secondary education.

94. The curricula of English secondary schools. It is
totally impossible to speak of the curriculum of the English
secondary school in the definite sense in which one may
speak of the curriculum of German or French higher schools.
In the more prominent endowed and private schools there
is a certain amount of uniformity determined by the fact
that they have a common aim — preparation for the uni-
versity. The conservative character of the older schools
will probably change only as the spirit of modernism affects
the universities. In the lesser private schools the curricula
vary more or less according to the particular classes of
patronage invited or given. In the grant-list schools there is

1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. i,
p. 677.

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 253

manifest a tendency to develop greater uniformity, although
that is far from having been consummated at present.

The Board of Education defines a secondary school as
one which

offers to each of its pupils a progressive course of instruction ... in
subjects necessary to a good general education, upon lines suitable
for pupils of an age range as wide as from twelve to seventeen.

If such a school is to receive "grant aid" the following
subjects must be offered and are obligatory: English lan-
guage and literature, at least one language other than Eng-
lish, geography, history, mathematics, science, and draw-
ing. A curriculum including two languages other than
English, but making no provision for instruction in Latin,
will only be approved where the board are satisfied that the
omission of Latin is for the educational advantage of the
school. Instruction in science must include practical work
by the pupils. Adequate provision must be made for organ-
ized games, physical exercises, manual instruction, and sing-
ing. Schools for girls must offer practical instruction hi
domestic subjects, such as needlework, cookery, laundry
work, housekeeping, and household hygiene. Considerable
latitude is allowed the local authorities to adapt the cur-
riculum to special local needs.

95. The secondary education of girls in England. As in
all countries of Europe the education of girls was long de-
layed in England. There, too, as in America, Germany,
France, and other countries, secondary education for girls
began as a result of private initiative. The movement was
particularly noticeable in the decade or so preceding 1892
when endowments had been established for about forty-
five girls' schools. The Girls' Public Day School Company
(Trust), one of those semi-private, semi-public school
societies which have been so active in the educational his-

254 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

tory of England, established thirty-four schools between
1873 and 1897. Many of those schools, together with
others, came under the regulations of 1902 regarding grant
aid, and thus came more or less into the public "system"
in the sense previously suggested.

While coeducation is by no means the usual practice in
secondary schools in England (quite the opposite, of course,
in endowed and private schools) economic factors have
affected the situation in many smaller communities and
even in some of the larger towns. Of the 928 schools in
England and Wales which were recognized by the Board
of Education as "efficient" in 1909-10, there were 150
schools in which boys and girls were taught together
throughout the school and 23 in which they were taught
together in some classes.

96. Secondary schools and other departments of educa-
tion. The absence of an organized system of education
in England necessarily means a lack of close articulation
between the various departments. The more prominent
en<Jowed and private schools recruit their pupils from the
"preparatory schools" which are designed almost exclu-
sively to prepare boys for the examinations via which they
may pass into the secondary schools. In 1910 there were
about 360 schools of that type with an average enrollment
of thirty-seven pupils. Each important "public" school has
its own group of fitting schools.

With regard to the public elementary schools: 1

The official regulations declare it to be "an important though
subsidiary object of the elementary school to discover individual
children who show promise of exceptional capacity, and to develop
their special gifts — so that they may be qualified to pass at the
proper age into secondary schools, and be able to derive the

1 Cf. Smith, A. T., in Monroe, P. (Editor), A Cyclopedia of Education,
vol. n, p. 473.

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 255

maximum of benefit from the education there offered them."
The transfer of pupils from elementary to secondary schools
should take place not later than the twelfth year or age, but an
earlier age is encouraged by a grant paid on transferred pupils
between the ages of ten and twelve years. The main grant in
secondary schools, however, is paid in respect to pupils between
the ages of twelve and eighteen years.

For children of ordinary ability who leave the elementary school
at twelve or thirteen years of age, evening schools offer opportu-
nity for continued training, and as these schools are classed under
the head of higher education, there are two diverging roads leading
upward from the elementary schools.1

For public schools the general scheme of articulation may
be seen from the following table which approximately
represents the situation.

TABLE CII

Age in years 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 U 15 IS 17 18 19

Elementary "standard".../ 11 111 IV V VI VII

Secondary school 1 2 3 4 5

Higher elementary school.. 12 2 (4)

Continuation school 1 2 S 4 5

Higher institutions

It may be seen from this rough table that the articu-
lation between the elementary and secondary schools is
loose or flexible according to one's viewpoint. The over-
lapping of the last grades of the elementary school and the
earlier grades of the secondary school is noticeable. The
draft which the "grant-list" schools make on the public
elementary schools may be observed from Table CIII.

Admission of students to the college or university is al-
ways through examinations. To the universities of Oxford
and Cambridge boys are commonly admitted via exami-
nations from the endowed and private schools. Modern
regional universities, such as those of London, Manchester,
etc., draw their students from a less restricted class.
1 Board of Education Report (1911-12), pp. 48, 60.

256 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE CIII. ENROLLMENT OF PUPILS IN ENGLAND AND
WALES, 1911-12*

Elementary schools 6,041,921

Secondary schools on grant-list 165,617

Technical, art, and evening schools on grant-list 843,738

Higher elementary schools 9,360

* Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1913), vol. I, pp. 738-39.

97. Secondary schools and the social organization in
England. For centuries the greater part of secondary edu-
cation in England has been carried on by private and en-
dowed institutions, the great majority of which were board-
ing-schools. In no other country has the private or semi-
private school played so large a part in secondary education,
and probably in no other country has the boarding-school
played so important a role, though common throughout
Europe. In its dependence on private secondary schools
England stands in marked contrast with Germany, France,
America, and most important states. Objections to the non-
public school in England are many and its weaknesses are
evident. It has prevented or at any rate delayed, the devel-
opment of free public and universal secondary education.
It has prevented many children from receiving the benefit
of higher education. It has fostered conservatism and tra-
dition. It has prevented a desirable degree of uniformity
and standardization in secondary education. It has been
a system of education which was well adapted to the needs
and opportunities of a few, but it has neglected the needs of
the many. It has fostered a spirit of class distinction of
great social significance. All these strictures are justified
and are recognized in England as well as elsewhere. On the
other hand, if the theory dominant in English education
up to the present be accepted, if it be granted that second-
ary education for the purpose of developing leaders is a ten-
able theory, then many advantages can be shown to have
resulted from the English secondary schools.

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 257

To the selected group of boys who are able to attend such
schools as are represented by the better class of endowed
and private institutions there is afforded an education, a
training which is far more than instruction with emphasis
on the intellectual side. Whatever faults may be attributed
to English secondary schools of the type considered here,
they must certainly be balanced in part by the character of
the moral, social, and physical training which the endowed
schools of the better class undoubtedly afford. To that
training certain elements evidently contribute much: the
athletic and out-of-door life which is even more extensive
than hi America; the intimate social relations between the
students and between students and teachers; the high tra-
ditional ideals which permeate the whole atmosphere of the
schools. All this has had its effect and has made the en-
dowed schools of England a powerful force affecting English
society and public life. For instance, Eton alone has fur-
nished England with ten prime ministers, twenty-two gov-
ernor-generals of India, and innumerable cabinet ministers
and other public men.

While the secondary education afforded by the endowed
and private schools of England has been satisfactory for the
higher classes — probably superior to that which will ever
be afforded by purely public schools — secondary education
for the other classes of society has been quite inadequate.
The movement inaugurated by the act of 1902 was the result
of a recognition of the inadequacy of existing forms of sec-
ondary education with reference to the needs of the middle
and lower classes. If the plans of the Board of Education
and of educators in general succeed, a real approximation
to equality of opportunity in secondary education may be
expected in England in the not-distant future. Such a move-
ment should mean: (1) an extension of truly public second-
ary schools; (2) the elimination, or at any rate the reduc-

258 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

tion, of tuition fees now regularly charged even in the " grant-
list" secondary schools; (3) the greater extension of courses
adapted to the differentiated needs of boys and girls; (4)
a great reduction in the number of privately and ecclesiasti-
cally controlled secondary schools; (5) a change in the atti-
tude of the people toward social distinctions in secondary
education.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. Consider the dominant ideals of Prussian society as affecting her
secondary schools.

2. Consider the .dominant social ideals of France as affecting her second-
ary schools.

8. Consider the dominant ideals of England as affecting her secondary
schools.

4. Compare the articulation of secondary education with other depart-
ments of education in France, Germany, England, and the United
States. Make a chart correlating age, grade, and type of school.

5. Compare the curricula of French, Prussian, and American secondary
schools with special reference to: (a) rigidity or flexibility; (6) the
proportionate amounts of time devoted to special subjects or groups of
subjects; (c) distribution and concentration; (d) amount of time in
weekly schedule, etc.

6. Compare the facilities for the secondary education of girls in Europe
and in America.

7. Compare the status of private or semi-private secondary schools in
Germany, France, England, and America.

8. Consider the relation of ecclesiastical influence to secondary education
in Germany, France, England, and America.

9. Compare the training, qualifications, teaching efficiency, social status,
salary, etc., of secondary school teachers in Germany, France, England,
and the United States. Russell, Farrington, J. F. Brown.1

10. Compare opportunities for free and universal secondary education in
Germany, France, England, and America.

11. Compare the teaching of special subjects of study in German, French,
and American secondary schools. Russell, Farrington.1

12. Compare the facilities for vocational schools, trade schools, continua-
tion schools, in Germany, France, England, and the United States.
How are they related to secondary education?

13. Make a special study of the school system of Sweden as reorganized

1 Cf. the references in the following bibliography.

IN OTHER COUNTRIES 259

in 1904. (Cf. Report of the United States Commissioner of Education
(1913), vol. i, pp, 76S/.)

14. Make a special study of the Folk High Schools of Denmark. (Cf. Bul-
letins of the Bureau of Education (1913), no. 58; (1914), no. 5.

15. Make a special study of the movement toward a "national system"
of education in England with special reference to the laws of 1902,
1906, et seq.

SELECTED REFERENCES

I. General:

Farrington, F. E., "Secondary Education in Europe," chap.m of

Monroe, P. (Editor), Principles of Secondary Education.
Hughes, R. E., The Making of Citizens; A Study in Comparative

Education.
Monroe, P. (Editor), A Cyclopedia of Education, articles for each

foreign country.
Russell, W. F., Economy in Secondary Education, pp. 4-10, 17-26,

48-53.
Sadler, M. E., The Unrest in Secondary Education in Germany and

Elsewhere: Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Great Britain,

Board of Education, vol. ix.
United States Bureau of Education, Reports of the Commissioner of

Education, especially those since 1910: 1901, vol. i, pp. 939-1136;

1902, vol. i, pp. 667-1068; 1903, vol. i, pp. 585-667; 1904, vol. I,

pp. 767-861; 1905, vol. i, pp. 57-110; 1906, vol. I, pp. 1-90;

1907, vol. i, pp. 73-255J 1908, vol. i, pp. 145-81; 1909, vol. I,

pp. 323-549; 1910, vol. i, pp. 301-578; 1911, vol. I, pp. 455-589;

1912, vol. i, pp. 459-615; 1913, vol. i, pp. 679-900; 1914, vol. I,

pp. 655-788; 1916, vol. I, pp. 513-688.
II. Germany:

Bolton, F. E., The Secondary School System of Germany.
Brown, J. F., The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools in Ger-
many and the United States.
Great Britain, Board of Education, Special Reports on Educational

Subjects, vols. i-m, ix, xx.
Giildner, H., Die hoheren -Lehranstalten fur die weibliche Jugend in

Preussen.

Lexis, W., Das Unterrechtswesen im Deutschen Reich, vol. n.
Paulsen, F. (translation by Lorentz, T.), German Education : Past

and Present.
Prettyman, C. W., "Higher Girls' Schools of Prussia," Teachers

College Record, May, 1911.
Russell, J. E., German Higher Schools.
Simmons, L. V. T., "The Problem of Vocational Education as

260 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Carried Out in the German School System," School and Society,

vol. v, pp. 639-46.
Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben fiir die hoheren Schulen in Preussen

(1901).

Statistisches Jahrbuch der hdheren Schiden. Published annually.
Centralblatt fur die gesamte Unterrichts-Verwaltung in Preussen.
Verhandlungen ilber Fragen des hdheren Unterrichts (1910).
Cf. also Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education, cited

above.

III. France:

Farrington, F. E., French Secondary Schools.

Girard, D. de, Questions d' enseignement secondaire.

Great Britain, Board of Education, Special Reports on Educational
Subjects, vol. xxiv.

Langlois, C. V., La Question de I'enseignement secondaire en France
et d V Stranger.

Perkins, H. A., "The Educational System of France," Educational
Review, March, 1911,

Ribot Commission, Report of, Enquete sur I'enseignement secondaire.

Plan d 'etudes et programmes de I 'enseignement dans les lycees et col-
leges des jeunes fittes (1913).

Plan d' etudes et programmes de I 'enseignement secondaire des gargons
(1913).

Annuaire Statistique, vol. xxxn, pp. 26-31, 24 *.

Cf. also Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education,
cited above.

IV. England:

Balfour, G., Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland.

Board of Education, Annual Reports.

Board of Education, Great Britain, Special Reports on Educational

Subjects, vols. i, xxn.

Burgstall, S. A., and Douglas, M. A., Public Schools for Girls.
Kandel, I. L., "Educational Tendencies in England," School and

Society, vol. v, pp. 631-39.
Minchin, J. G. C., Our Public Schools: Their Influence on English

History.

Montmorency, J. E. G., National Education and National Life.
Norwood, C., and Hope, A. H., Higher Education of Boys in England.
Sandiford, P., The Training of Teachers in England and Wales.
Staunton, H., The Great Schools of England.
Yoxall, J. H., and Gray, E., The Red Code. An annual publication

containing the official regulations of the Board of Education.
Public Schools Yearbook. Published annually.
Cf. also Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education,

cited above.

CHAPTER VII

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN RELATION TO
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

98. Factors involved in making distinctions. The division
of the system of education in the United States into the two
administrative departments of the elementary school and
the secondary school is more the result of chance than of
any attempt to build up a properly articulated system of
schools. The fact that present conditions have not always
obtained in this country and the fact that systems of educa-
tion hi other countries differ radically from that in America
suggest that our present distinction between elementary
and secondary education and the existing relation between
the two divisions of education may possibly be improved by
an examination of the factors which should determine the
character of the system. The first step in such an examina-
tion is the consideration of distinctions which have been
made between elementary and secondary education.

Apart from distinctions based on administrative divisions
of the system of education, elementary and secondary edu-
cation have been distinguished in numerous ways: on the
basis of the chronological age of the children concerned; on
the basis of stages of physiological or psychological develop-
ment, with special reference to the phenomena of puberty;
on the basis of social factors; and on the basis of the charac-
ter of the studies pursued.

99. Distinctions based on chronological age. When an
attempt is made to define elementary education and second-

262 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ary education in terms of the chronological ages of the
children taught, it is found that such a criterion is a crude
measure as applied to the actual situation. Theoretically
in the United States the system of secondary education is
in part based on the assumption that the children in attend-
ance at the elementary schools and secondary schools are
of ages conforming roughly to the standard illustrated in
the following table.

TABLE CIV

Elementary school High school

Grade 12345678 I II III IV

Age 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18

How far the actual distribution of children is from the
standard set may be seen from the figures given in Tables
II, III, and XXV. In most school systems a larger number
of fourteen- and fifteen-year-old children is found in the ele-
mentary school than in the secondary school, and in all cases
the variability of age with reference to grade and of grade
with reference to age is so great as to make chronological
age but an approximate criterion of the delimitation of ele-
mentary and secondary education. In a general sense only
is chronological age to be used as a measure of school prog-
ress. It can never afford a line of clear demarcation.

100. Distinctions based on development. The distinction
between elementary education and secondary education has
been based on stages in the physiological and psychological
development of children more frequently and more persist-
ently than on any other one factor. In general it is a fact
which may be accepted that the majority of boys and girls
in the elementary school have not yet reached the stage of
adolescence and that the majority of boys and girls in the
high school have reached that stage. It is nevertheless true
that adolescent boys and girls are found in the elementary
schools in practically as large numbers as in the high schools.

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 263

of most school systems. It is further true that a significant
proportion of boys and girls in the early grades of the sec-
ondary school have not yet reached the stage of adolescence.
It must be recognized that in American schools pupils in
the later grades of the secondary school are predominantly
adolescent or pubescent and that pupils in the earlier grades
of the elementary school are predominantly immature. In
the later grades of the elementary school, however, and the
earlier grades of the high school (especially in the first year)
non-adolescent pupils and adolescent pupils are intermingled
to such an extent that any clear distinction between ele-
mentary education and secondary education is impossible
at the very point where distinction is important. In gen-
eral (but only in general) we may say that pupils in grades
one to five or six of the elementary school form a group
roughly homogeneous with respect to the phenomena of
adolescence (being predominantly immature), that pupils
in grades seven and eight of the elementary school and in
the first grade of the high school form a group widely vari-
able, and that pupils in the last three grades of the high
school form a group roughly homogeneous with respect to
adolescence (being predominantly mature). The bearing
of theories of periodic or concomitant development and of
saltatory or gradual development on this problem has al-
ready been discussed.

Somewhat allied to the distinction based on the difference
between immature (non-pubescent) pupils and maturing or
mature (pubescent and postpubescent) pupils is that sug-
gested in the following quotation:

There is a stage in mental development, above the empirical
stage and below the philosophical, which we may call the "scien-
tific." The grade of education corresponding to this intermediate
stage may, quite naturally, be called secondary, that below it being
called primary, and that above it, higher. The primary or ele-

264 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

mentary division deals mainly with things in their unessential
relationships, their resemblances and differences, their collocation
in space, and their orderly arrangement in temporal series. It
rises, to be sure, to general ideas, but hardly arrives at logical
definition of its ideas. The secondary division deals with ideas
more clearly defined; and it comes to an understanding of things
as organized into coherent systems through the operation of such
principles as those of mechanical causation and human imitation.
These principles have already become familiar, to be sure, in the
earlier stage, but not in their larger significance.1

As Indicating a general truth concerning the intellectual
processes of the immature and the mature pupil such a sug-
gestion may be accepted. The statements cannot, however,
be taken as indicating any clear distinction between ele-
mentary education and secondary education as far as the
transition point between the two is concerned. The ob-
vious relation of the definitions to theories of serial or
periodic and saltatory development will not escape the
reader.

101. Distinctions based on social factors. Distinctions
between lower and higher education based on social factors
are more common and much more important hi European
states than in America. It has already been pointed out
that lower and higher education in Germany and France are
separated by lines of social and economic cleavage and have
but little articulation. It has also been pointed out that the
terms elementary education and secondary education, ele-
mentary schools and secondary schools, should be inter-
preted with great caution when any comparison is attempted
between foreign and American schools.

Social distinctions between elementary education and
secondary education have not been entirely wanting, how-
ever, in America. Then* basis is found in the conception that

1 Brown, E. E., The Making of Our Middle Schools, p. 3. Quoted with
the permission of the publishers, Longmans, Green, & Co.

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 265

elementary education is appropriate for all children while
secondary education (of necessity in practice if not of choice
or theory) is limited to a relatively small proportion of chil-
dren. Such a conception is more or less manifest in com-
pulsory education laws and at times has been to some extent
effective in determining educational theory and practice.
It is, for instance, involved in the following statement by
Hadley:1

Secondary education, under the definition which I would sug-
gest, includes all those studies which are regarded by the public as
too far advanced to be a part of the compulsory education which
it strives to furnish to all citizens, and which are at the same time
not sufficiently specialized in their purpose to be considered part
of the technical preparation of different groups of citizens for their
several callings hi life. It is distinguished on the one hand from
primary education by being less universal. It is distinguished on
the other hand from technical education in its object; ha fitting
the student to be a better man rather than a more expert
producer. Speaking roughly, primary education aims to secure the
necessary level of general intelligence; technical education aims to
secure the necessary level of professional intelligence; secondary
education aims at something in excess of the necessary minima.

While such a distinction between the three divisions of
the system of education may by some be considered valid
"speaking roughly," it is obvious that no clear line of de-
marcation can be determined by the criteria suggested, the
point (grade) at which the "level of general intelligence"
ends and " something in excess of the necessary minima" be-
gins being still undetermined.

102. Distinctions based on studies. As late as 1912 in
schedules sent out by the Federal Bureau of Education a
secondary-school student was defined as follows: 2

1 Hadley, A. T., "The Meaning and Purpose of Secondary Education,"
School Review, vol. x, p. 732.
8 Bureau of Education Bulletin (1912), no. 22, p. 5.

266 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Secondary student (or high-school student) should be taken
as meaning a student who has completed an elementary-school
course of at least seven years in length (ordinarily eight years) or
its equivalent, and has pursued within the past year at least two
recognized high-school studies, e.g., Latin, French, German,
algebra, geometry, physical geography, physics, general history.

Any such definition of secondary education is, of course,
totally arbitrary and as a matter of fact is already out of
harmony with present-day theory and practice. The his-
tory of education shows clearly that no criterion could be
more untrustworthy than one dependent for its meaning on
specific subjects of study. This is particularly true since the
development of vocational secondary education.

A distinction offering a nearer approach to criteria of ele-
mentary and secondary education is that which defines the
work of the elementary school as primarily involving the
training of children in the fundamental tools of education
such as that now forming the bulk of the work of our ele-
mentary schools. That training in the fundamental tools of
education and of life is a primary function of elementary
education must be recognized. Few would, however, admit
that such training is the sole function of the elemen-
tary school. Few likewise would be willing to admit that
even all the fundamental tools can adequately be ac-
quired in the elementary school. Here language offers a
good example. The mechanics of reading, writing, spelling,
and other forms of language work can doubtless be acquired
in a relatively short time. Surely, however, the development
of ability to employ the language tool is not completed by
such attainments. The proper relation of reading, writing,
spelling, and the like to the development of ability to use
language as an instrument for thinking and for the expres-
sion of thought is not established within the period of ele-
mentary education as now constituted. Only on the suppo-

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 267

sition that we can establish definitely the point at which
studies cease to be "fundamental tools" and become some-
thing else could we distinguish between elementary educa-
tion and secondary education on such a basis.

103. The fallacy of sharp distinctions. When elementary
education as a whole is compared with secondary education
as a whole, all the points of distinction considered in the
preceding sections are valid. Pupils in the secondary school
are of an average older age than those in the elementary
school. Likewise they are predominantly pubescent or post-
pubescent while pupils in the elementary school are pre-
dominantly immature. Pupils hi the secondary school are
a more select group socially and economically than those in
the elementary school. Studies in the secondary school are
different in kind and require higher degrees of mental abil-
ities than those in the elementary school. However, when
such general distinctions are made the basis of lines of sharp
demarcation between the two divisions of education, the
dangers of the "group fallacy" become very great. Having
once classified pupils by total groups hi the elementary or
secondary school we tend to become the victims of our own
classifications, assuming that what is true of the group as a
whole is true of the various sub-groups or individuals of that
group. Hence we tend to think of pupils hi the last grade of
the elementary school and pupils in the first grade of the
secondary school as manifesting the same differences as
those found between elementary-school pupils as a whole
and secondary-school pupils as a whole. Such procedure
is fallacious in the extreme.

The primary criterion of the relation between the various
parts of the school system is found in the character of the
development of boys and girls. This factor was considered
at some length in Chapters I and II. There the conclusion
was reached that no abrupt change in education is justified

268 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

at any point in the school system, but that the development
of the individual being essentially a gradual, continuous,
and unitary process., demands a gradually changing, con-
tinuous, and unitary process of education. Hence on this
basis the school system should be without points of abrupt
transition and the change from what is characteristically
elementary to what is characteristically secondary education
must be gradual.

While the character of the development of children de-
mands that the transition from elementary education to
secondary education be gradual and continuous, it must be
recognized that the exigencies of school organization and
administration necessitate changes at some point or points
which must to some extent interfere with the transition of
pupils from division to division of the school system. Some-
where in the course of the pupil's progress he must be trans-
ferred to a different building. Somewhere the change must
be made from the single common course typical of elemen-
tary education to the field of differentiated courses of the
secondary school, from the single-teacher-per-group system
to the departmental system, from the administrative regime
of the elementary school to that of the secondary school.
Under our present organization the majority of those
changes are made abruptly and at the same point. This is
neither necessary nor desirable. It should be an aim of
organization and administration to see to it that the neces-
sary changes be made in such a way that the transition of
the pupil shall be gradual and continuous as far as may be
possible.

The point should be emphasized that, however clearly
we may distinguish between elementary education as a
whole and secondary education as a whole, any attempt
to draw a sharp dividing line between the two is contrary
to the dictates of sound pedagogy. There is no clear line

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 269

of demarcation between elementary and secondary educa-
tion. The former merges into the latter by imperceptible
degrees.

II. HISTORICAL AND COMPARATIVE CONSIDERATIONS

104. Historical development. The sequential relation of
elementary and secondary education (wherein secondary ed-
ucation is conceived as a continuation of training following
and dependent on elementary education) represents a rela-
tively recent stage of development and one found in com-
plete form only in America and in countries more or less
affected by American practice. When we examine the ear-
lier forms of education in Europe (to go back no farther than
the Renaissance and Reformation periods), we find existing
two different types of schools, the so-called secondary school
(gymnasium, Latin grammar school, etc.) and schools of a
lower type in which were taught only the rudiments of read-
ing and writing. Schools of the former type were designed
for the education of the higher classes. Schools of the lower
type afforded a rudimentary education (it can scarcely be
called an elementary education) for a few of the less fortu-
nate class. Between these two types of schools there existed
no recognized articulation, as there existed little opportunity
for change from one class of society to the other. It is quite
misleading in many respects to differentiate these schools as
elementary and secondary schools. Rather we should say
that there existed during the Renaissance and Reformation
periods one rather complete system of schools designed for
the higher classes and another type of school (it can scarcely
be called system) for some of the lower classes. This is all
the more true since the higher type of school either provided
its own "elementary education" or depended on home or
tutorial training for reading and writing instruction.

270 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Out of those two types of schools have developed the mod-
ern "elementary" and "secondary" schools of Europe which
only in the most recent times have been brought into very
incomplete articulation and which still manifest clearly the
lines of social distinction inherited from earlier days.

105. The development of articulation in America. The
American system of articulated elementary and secondary
education stands in marked contrast with the more or less
parallel systems of Germany, France, and other European
countries, where social and economic lines in large part de-
termine the differentiation. It must not be supposed, how-
ever, that the American system of articulated schools origi-
nated in anything like its present form. The first secondary
schools in this country, the colonial Latin grammar schools,
were in no definite way articulated with the "reading and
writing" schools, "dame schools," etc., which constituted
the lower schools of the period, but were complete in them-
selves, being connected only with the college for which they
were designed to prepare. The earliest laws did, indeed,
provide both for elementary schools and for secondary
schools, but those provisions included no plan or suggestion
for articulation between them. It was not until the rise of the
high school in the second quarter of the nineteenth century
that there developed any sort of organized articulation
between the two departments, though it should be noted
that various comprehensive schemes for state systems of
education which provided for a well-articulated system of
elementary and secondary schools had been proposed and
in part adopted before that time.

The Latin grammar school was confessedly designed solely
to prepare boys for college and hence in part reflected the
mark of social distinction found in European secondary
schools of the period. Such boys did not attend the "com-
schools." It was only with the establishment of. the

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 271

high school, which aimed to provide secondary education
for boys and girls who did not intend to go to college, that
boys and girls who had gone to the common schools were pro-
vided with a means of secondary education. The need for
articulation then became important. Thus the Boston
English Classical (High) School was established "with the
design of furnishing young men of the city who are not in-
tended for a collegiate course of study and who have enjoyed
the usual advantages of the other public schools with the means
of completing a good English education."

The first high-school law in the country (Massachusetts,
1827) made no provision for the articulation between the
secondary school and the elementary school but rather inter-
fered with any close articulation by providing for a certain
amount of elementary education in the high school proper.
This led to a considerable amount of confusion which per-
sisted for several years. However, the law did allow the local
school committees to determine the regulations regarding
the qualifications for admission to the high school and in the
larger and better school systems there soon developed cer-
tain standards for admission to the high school which regu-
larly involved satisfactory completion of the elementary
school studies. This is specifically so stated in the report of
the school committee of Worcester (Massachusetts) as early
as 1844, but the standard had in fact been established rather
generally in practice before that. The transfer was regu-
larly made on the basis of examinations which were made
quite formal, even to the extent of printing the examina-
tion questions. Nevertheless the greatest confusion between
elementary and secondary schools was found until well into
the last half of the nineteenth century, a condition whicb
may be appreciated from the fact that, while there were
certainly not more than eighteen high schools in Massachu-
setts in 1840, out of 304 towns reporting at that date, 104

272 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

claimed to offer algebra in their schools, 181 claimed to offer
natural philosophy (physics), 116 mental science, 41 chem-
istry, and various other subjects belonging to the secondary
school curriculum — some of them required by law as high-
school subjects.

In this connection we must not fail to note the lack of
well-graded elementary schools in this country until well on
into the second half of the nineteenth century. In many
States the "district system," whereby a large number of
small and to some degree independent political districts,
with corresponding education units (school districts), mili-
tated strongly against the development of well-graded
schools. This undoubtedly had its influence in delaying the
articulation of elementary and secondary schools in the
United States, and particularly in New England.

From these facts it is clear that the present form of articu-
lation between elementary and secondary schools in the
United States is of relatively recent development and repre-
sents the result of attempts to bring into relation two insti-
tutions, which had grown up more or less independently.
The present situation is the result of a gradual growth rather
than a system logically developed in theory and applied
directly through legislative or administrative action, the
result of an evolution, not the result of a logically con-
structed organization.

106. Practice in foreign countries. An examination of
systems of education in foreign countries discloses a number
of facts of interest in connection with the relation between
elementary and secondary education. Among those facts
may be mentioned the following.

(1) In many foreign countries, e.g., Germany and France,
the division of schools is based on the groupings of pupils
(social and economic) rather than on the basis of school
progress, the "higher schools" including both elementary

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 273

and secondary education in the American sense of those
terms.

(2) In such countries there is no definite point at \vbich
one can say elementary education ends and secondary edu-
cation begins. In whatever school a boy or girl enrolls he
proceeds without abrupt transition from grade to grade or

Age in Years 6 78 9 10 11 12 18 14 15 16 17 18 19

United States I Elenentary School

[Secondary School |

fieraany*

Preparatory : llohore Ha'dehenschule . *

Vollcsschule : Vortbiidungs-schuie.etCi
Vorsohule • Hohere Knabensehule . _1

Trance

feole Prinaire

Lyneg or College (Olrls=) _ _ J

• lyc^e or Coll^se (Boys)

Sngland

I Elepentary School 'Higher Elementary ,ete«

Secondary School

Pen-lark

Sweden

Italy

rolkesxole j" " Cont inuatlon" 8cliooV,e?cr " "

~) ' tle'l'lem 'skoie"'"r Gyana's'i'u

I Middle School |
~

1 Infant ; Elementary ~ Cont ruat on School, etc.

| Realskolor '

| Oynmasiioi

Eleaentary School I

Priory SehooT

gher Prinaryj

_
mddle Schoo [Hitf. School ~\

Scotland llnfan ; Primry

*• - -

atp [Seoondaryj

Greece

| Eler.entary

Hellenic | Gyrcnasium

FIGURE U. ILLUSTRATING THE RELATION OF VARIOUS SCHOOLS IN
DIFFERENT FOREIGN COUNTRIES

274 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

from division to division. Nothing could be more misleading
than the statement commonly made that the German boy
begins his secondary education at the age of nine when he
enters the "higher school, " or that the French boy begins his
secondary education at the age of ten when he enters the
lycte or college. In both cases elementary education merges
into secondary education (in the American sense of both
terms) so gradually that it is quite impossible to dissociate
the two. This continuity and gradualness of educational
progress is in fact one of the outstanding characteristics of
German and French education.

(3) Subjects which are confined to secondary-school
study in America are begun at a much earlier stage in most
foreign countries, e.g., in the "higher schools" of Germany
and in the French lycSe. *

(4) Some amount of differentiated education is provided
earlier in Germany and France than in America — in Ger-
many at the age of nine and in France at the age of ten.

Some of these facts will appear more clearly from the
diagram illustrating the relation of various schools in differ-
ent countries. (Figure U.)

III. THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE ARTICULATION BE-
TWEEN ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION IN
THE UNITED STATES

107. The eight-four-system. In discussing the present
status of articulation between elementary and secondary
education in this country the normal situation will be con-
sidered as that in which a four-year high-school course
is sequentially related to an eight-year elementary-school
course. In some localities, especially in New England, the
elementary-school course comprises nine grades, but in such
cases younger children enter the first grade of the school,

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 275

which is to be considered in some respects as taking the
place of a kindergarten grade, and the relation of the ele-
mentary school to the high school is not seriously affected.
High schools with courses shorter than four grades are nu-
merous, constituting approximately one third of all high
schools in the country and enrolling about one tenth of the
total number of high-school pupils. With the exception of
high schools established in recent years hi the form of junior-
senior high schools, or as six-year high schools (to be consid-
ered separately below), variations from the four-grade high
school are due to their situation in sparsely populated dis-
tricts and are mainly of the partial high-school type, con-
sidered as incomplete and preparing pupils for the comple-
tion of then* courses in other nearby high schools. Their
number is constantly decreasing as consolidation improves,
and they involve no important separate problem affecting
the matter of articulation.

108. The age of pupils transferred. Theoretically pupils
in the last grade of the elementary school are about thirteen
or fourteen years of age and those of the first grade of the
high school are about fourteen or fifteen years of age. It has
already been pointed out that there is a great amount of
overlapping between grades in the chronological ages of
pupils in any school system. In the majority of school sys-
tems pupils twelve, thirteen, or fourteen years of age will
be found scattered all the way from the first grade of the
elementary school well into the high school and pupils fif-
teen, sixteen, even seventeen years of age will be found in
almost every grade from the lowest to the highest. Thus it
appears from the data presented in Table III that in the
cities considered 45.2 per cent of all thirteen-year-old pupils
were found located below the seventh grade, 46.2 per cent
of all fourteen-year-old pupils below the eighth grade, 45.1
per cent of all fifteen-year-old pupils below the first grade

276 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

of the high school. In many school systems there are more
fifteen-year-old pupils in the elementary school than in the
high school.

The large number of over-age pupils found in the ele-
mentary school raises some serious questions concerning
methods of promotion in the later grades of that school.
The problem will be considered at greater length in later sec-
tions dealing with the junior high school. It may be sug-
gested here, however, that the practice hitherto obtaining
of retaining pupils chronologically, physiologically, and
socially mature, in the lower grades of the school system and
making the complete accomplishment of prescribed amounts
of elementary-school work the sole criterion for the admis-
sion of pupils to other forms of education is a practice harm-
ful both to the school and to the pupils. Pupils who are
more mature and who can secure greater benefit through
other forms of education than those usually provided in the
elementary school as at present organized must, wherever
possible, be provided the opportunity to engage in such
education as they can do rather than be required over and over
to engage in forms of education for which they have already
manifested their inability. Suggested means for accom-
plishing this reform will be considered in later sections.

109. The pedagogical age of pupils transferred. To
describe the stage of pedagogical development of pupils
making the transition from the elementary school to the
secondary school is a practical impossibility. To state that
the pupils have progressed through eight grades of the ele-
mentary school having performed the duties required by the
course of study and the administration with a certain degree
of success is to afford but little evidence of the ability and
achievement of such pupils. We know that the pupils have
met the minimum requirements of the elementary school
in reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, nature

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 277

study, drawing, etc. We know that they have been subjected
to certain forms of social education and to certain forms of
discipline. We know that each of those factors has had its
measure of effect in determining the nature of the children
entering the secondary school. Measures of the definite
status of the mental ability, of interests and attitudes, even
of achievement, are almost completely lacking. Until such
measures are supplied we must rest content hi describing the
previous training of pupils entering the secondary school in
general terms indicating that they have received such train-
ing as is afforded by eight years of education in the elemen-
tary schools, under the conditions obtaining there, and have
acquired a certain amount of facility in the employment of
such tools of education as are involved in language work,
numerical calculation, a certain number of facts of geog-
raphy, nature study, history, etc., and certain attitudes
toward the work of the school and toward society. That
the pupils coming to the secondary school from the elemen-
tary school should represent even a fairly homogeneous
group in achievement is not to be expected. Still less is it to
be expected that the group will be homogeneous in capac-
ity and ability. The same amount of "exposure" to the ed-
ucational forces of the elementary school does not decrease
original differences in capacity nor in achievement: rather
it tends to increase such original differences, and one may
confidently expect to find among pupils entering the second-
ary school after essentially the same amount and form of
training in the latter, differences fully as great as those
exemplified in Tables XXIII and XXIV.

no. Evidences of defects in articulation. For a number
of years it has been recognized that defects exist in the artic-
ulation between elementary schools and secondary schools
in the United States. Transition from one institution to
another or from one division of the same institution to

278 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

another must always involve the necessity for a certain
degree of readjustment to changed conditions. The more
different the two institutions or divisions the greater is the
degree of readjustment necessary. Important differences
are found between the elementary-school situation and the
high-school situation, and the pupil called upon to make
the change from one division to the other is required to
make important and difficult readjustments. Some of those
readjustments necessary deserve attention.

(1) The transition from the elementary school to the high
school ordinarily involves the breaking up of established
social groups among pupils who have been associated for
some years and the establishment of new social groups.
The resulting readjustments are as difficult in many cases
as those which face the college freshman or the boy whose
family moves to a strange town or district.

(2) The transition from the elementary school to the high
school ordinarily means a transfer from one institution to
another quite different, to one in which almost every phase
of the organization and administration is radically different
to those obtaining in the institution to which he has become
accustomed. The resulting readjustments necessary are by
no means easily made and sometimes the necessity for such
readjustments is not recognized until extensive damage has
been done to the boy or girl.

(3) The pupil on passing from the elementary school to
the high school ordinarily passes from a situation in which
practically all his study in any one grade (or even several
grades) has been under the direction and guidance of a single
teacher who has learned to know him in all his activities —
to know the whole child — to a situation in which his activ-
ities are divided in such a way as to involve a number of
different individuals as teachers and guides, no one of whom
knows the pupil as a whole and can coordinate his various

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 279

activities connected with the school work. Such an abrupt
transition from one situation to a far different one involves
an extremely difficult readjustment on the part of the pupil.
This situation, however, is rapidly being remedied in part
by extending some forms of departmental teaching down
into the eighth, seventh, or even the sixth grade of the ele-
mentary school, and, when such departmental work is
gradually introduced and its amount increased grade by
grade, the transition from the one school to the other per-
mits a gradual readjustment. In 1913 the United States
Bureau of Education sent out a questionnaire to superin-
tendents in cities of 5000 population or over, of which there
were 1245 enumerated in the census of 1910. Of 813 replies
received, 461 reported departmental teaching hi the elemen-
tary school in some form in the later grades. The complete
data summarized were as indicated in the following table.

TABLE CV *

Yea No No data

Is departmental teaching in operation? 461 352

Is the percentage of failures less? 240 78 143

Do a larger percentage enter the high school? 250 61 150

Are pupils better able to do high-school work? 302 34 125

* Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1913), vol. i, pp. 139-10.

(4) Transfer from the elementary school to the secondary
school commonly means a noticeable change in the char-
acter of studies. Those of the last grades of the elementary
school are almost exclusively subjects which have been
studied for many years and are familiar to the pupil in their
general associations because they are but different phases
of such subjects as arithmetic, language, geography, and
the like. On entrance to the high school the pupil is con-
fronted by a group of studies nearly all of which are un-
familiar in character or attacked from a viewpoint and by
methods which are unfamiliar. Obviously new subjects

280 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

of study must be encountered by the pupil in his progress
through the school. The difficulty lies not in the necessary
introduction of new studies but in the fact that they are
encountered en bloc in the first grade of the high school.
The necessity for abrupt adjustment to this group of new
subjects is a severe strain on the pupil. This is further em-
phasized by the fact that the increased responsibility for
undirected study and the removal of conditions favoring
a coordination of studies and habits of study make a sudden
demand for self direction for which previous provision has
not been made. Finally, when to these factors is added a
third — the responsibility for choice and election of studies
and curricula — the difficulties of adjustment and orienta-
tion are tremendously enhanced.

(5) Teachers in the elementary school regularly have
received their training in the normal school. Teachers in the
high school regularly have received their training — such
as it is — in the college. The former have received a pro-
fessional training which has emphasized method and the
pupil. The latter have received no professional training
in most cases and in their higher education have tended
to become specialists in subject matter. In the elementary
schools only 17.6 per cent of the teachers are men and it
is not by any means an exceptional case for the boy or girl
to reach the high school without ever having come into
contact with a man as his teacher. In the high school on
the average 43.6 per cent of the teachers are men and
sooner or later the high-school pupil is to have nearly one
half of his work and training under men teachers. Ordi-
narily the change is not so great as that implied by the fig-
ures since the majority of men teachers in the elementary
schools are found as teachers in the later grades of those
schools. The change is not without importance, however,
for pupils of either sex.

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 281

(6) As a result of the factors mentioned in the two para-
graphs preceding important differences are found in the
methods of teaching employed in the elementary and sec-
ondary schools. The abrupt changes in the methods of
teaching employed constitute one more factor demanding
readjustment on the part of the pupil entering the high
school for the first time.

(7) Closely related to this factor is the fact that methods
of discipline and methods of treating pupils differ quite
widely in the elementary school and the secondary school.
As children mature forms of discipline and of treatment
must and should change. No justification can be found,
however, for the sudden and abrupt change within four
months from the maternalism of the elementary school to
individualism of the secondary school. When conditions
call for such a change the pupil is bewildered by the great
readjustment necessary.

(8) Finally we may note that the whole atmosphere in
the high school differs from that of the elementary school.
The thousand and one forms of readjustment demanded of
the boy or girl entering the high school for the first time
postulate a capacity for adaptation not always found.

In general we may draw one important conclusion from
all these forms of readjustment involved — that the present
form of articulation between elementary and secondary
education violates the most important laws of unity and
continuity demanded by the unitary, continuous, and
gradual development of children. It is to be noted that
every one of the changes mentioned is necessary. The
danger lies in the fact that all those changes come at the
same time and are sudden and abrupt, so that the difficul-
ties of adjustment are cumulative.

in. Retardation and elimination as evidence. While
the phenomena of retardation and elimination are complex

282 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

and difficult of interpretation, they may afford some evi-
dence of the difficult readjustments which face the pupils
when they pass from the elementary school to the secondary
school. Figures for retardation indicate a large proportion-
ate amount of non-promotion in the first year of the high
school and in the majority of high schools it is recognized
that the first grade is the critical point in the school. Failure
there is not only greatest but also more likely to result in
discouragement and withdrawal from school.

In Chapter IV it was pointed out that the greatest pro-
portionate amount of elimination is found in the first grade
of the high school or between the first and second high-school
grades. The interpretation of that fact is not altogether
clear, but we are at least safe in saying that, so far as the
evidence goes, it would corroborate the belief that the
difficulties of adjustment facing the pupil on entrance to
the high school result in failure, discouragement, and with-
drawal.

In this connection it may be noted that malarticulation
between the elementary and secondary schools is evidenced
not only by the fact that pupils entering the high school fail
and leave in large numbers, but also by the fact that large
numbers of pupils leave school at the close of the elementary
period. In other words the high school not only fails to re-
tain pupils entering, but it also fails to attract many pupils
who should enter.

112. Instruction in later elementary-school grades.
Directly or indirectly the character of the instruction pro-
vided in the later grades of the elementary school seriously
affects the articulation between that school and the second-
ary school. Some of the factors here involved have already
been considered. It remains to point out that the unsatisfac-
tory education provided in the seventh and eighth grades
tends both to eliminate pupils in those grades and to dis-

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 283

courage them from proceeding into the secondary school.
In the following table are presented figures indicating the
average number of minutes per week devoted to various ele-
mentary-school studies in the seventh and eighth grades
of about fifty typical cities in the country.

TABLE CVI*

Studies Grade 7 Grade 8

Reading 98 97

Language 134 142

Spelling 52 51

Penmanship 39 37

Arithmetic 140 142

Geography 98 76

History 91 117

Science 45 57

Drawing 50 49

Music 45 44

Manual training 72 74

Physical training 38 39

Opening exercises 31 31

Recess 66 66

Miscellaneous 78 87

* On this whole question see the Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Stud)
yf Education, Part. I. Table from p. 26. See also Sixteenth Yearbook, Part I.

Reading, language, spelling, penmanship, arithmetic,
geography engage pupils during more than sixty per cent
of their recitation time in the seventh and eighth grades.
In many cases all studies of the elementary school are of a
highly formal character, containing much obsolete and use-
less material, and including a great amount of review work.1
Few elementary schools provide any opportunity for pupils
to vary their study in any appreciable degree by election of
subjects. Shorn of useless material and with a reduction of
reviews the elementary-school course in the seventh and
eighth grades could better meet the needs of education and
of articulation.

1 On the review work of those grades see Hill, C. M., Missouri State
Normal School Bulletin (1915), no. 3.

284 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

IV. REFORMS IN THE ARTICULATION OF ELEMENTARY AND
SECONDARY EDUCATION

113. Further objections to present conditions. In the
preceding section were pointed out evidences of a malad-
justment of elementary and secondary education in this
country because of the difficulties involved in the transition
from the former to the latter. That "gap" between the
two divisions is not, however, the sole objection which has
been raised against the present form of articulation between
the two schools. More fundamental objections are to be
found. They may be grouped under three general heads:
(a) psychological considerations, with special reference to the
factors of development with maturity and the distribution of
individual differences among pupils; (6) social and economic
considerations, with special reference to the factors of
economy of time and money in education, prevocational
education and the differentiated needs of society, elimination
and retardation; (c) administrative considerations. Need-
less to say, these factors are all closely interrelated. How-
ever, for purposes of analysis they may be considered
separately in the following sections.

114. Psychological considerations. Two important psy-
chological factors affect the problem of articulation between
elementary and secondary education, one involving the
adjustment of the different divisions of the educational
system to the development of children in mental traits, 'the
other involving recognition of the existence and distribution
of individual differences among pupils and the adaptation
thereto of the education afforded.

(1) The factor of development with maturity: For some time
*Jie theory has obtained in American education that a rather
Bidden and abrupt change from elementary to secondary
education is justified on the assumption that the develop-

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 285

ment of children with maturity is saltatory and that at
adolescence particularly a marked change takes place in the
boy or girl which justified a correspondingly marked diff-
erentiation between elementary, and secondary education.
From the material presented in Chapter II it would appear:
(a) that the theory of gradual development seems more cor-
rect than the theory of saltatory development; and (6) that,
even on the assumption of a theory of saltatory develop-
ment for individuals, among groups of pupils variability is
so great and the influence of other factors so strong that
points of abrupt transition between any two successive
divisions of the system of education are quite unjustifiable.
Essential continuity and gradual change should mark the
articulation between elementary and secondary education
whether a theory of saltatory development or a theory of
gradual development is assumed.

In this connection attention may be recalled to the facts
disclosed by figures in Tables XI to XVIII. Those figures
indicate that as our school system is at present organized
pupils in grades 1-6 are predominantly immature physio-
logically, in grades II-TV (high school) pupils are predom-
inantly mature physiologically, and that the stage from
the seventh grade of the elementary school to the first grade
of the high school, pupils are in a markedly transitional
period as far as the factor of pubescence is concerned. At
the age of twelve less than five per cent of the pupils are
post-pubescent, and the age of sixteen more than four fifths
are post-pubescent. Ages thirteen to fifteen mark the
transitional period.

(#) The factor of individual differences : While the factor
of individual differences is involved in all departments and
at all stages in education, it fails to receive recognition in
important respects until the stage of secondary education
begins. In the majority of school systems under existing

286 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

conditions any sort of adaptation of courses, studies, and
methods of teaching to the differentiated capacities, inter-
ests, and needs of boys and girls is deferred to the beginning
of the high school where pupils are on the average approx-
imately fourteen or fifteen years of age. The psychology
of individual differences indicates that this date is too late
and that provision should be made earlier in the school
system for the adaptation of the work of the schools to the
differentiated capacities, interests, and needs of pupils as
well as to the differentiated needs of society. There can be
little doubt that failure to meet this demand in the past has
led to ineffective work on the part of the school, has ham-
pered the administration of the school system, and has con-
tributed greatly to the forces of retardation and elimination.

115. Social and economic principles involved. Closely
related to the factors considered in the preceding section,
and certainly no less important, are those which arise out of
certain social and economic considerations.

(1) Economy of time in education : Within the past half-
century or less the ages at which the successive stages of
education are begun and are completed have gradually been
extended upward until serious questions have arisen con-
cerning the economy of time in our educational system.
When we consider the system of education as a whole, we
find that those who enter professional careers do so at a rela-
tively late age when compared with their fellows in other
countries. Likewise, when we consider the attainments of
graduates of our secondary schools and colleges we find that
they are not equal to the attainments of students in other
countries with respect to the amount of time devoted to
their education. Recognizing those facts many American
educators have turned their attention to the problem of
economy of time in our schools, their attention focusing on
the length of the elementary-school course (with special

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 287

reference to the last two grades of that school), the length
of the secondary-school course, and the form of articulation
between the two. Among the many suggested changes that
recommended by the Committee of the National Council
of Education on "Economy of Time in Education" perhaps
best illustrates the problem. That committee has presented
a provisional time schedule in which the articulation
between the various divisions of the system of education
would be: elementary education, 6-12 years; secondary
education (two divisions — four years and two years), 12-
18; college, 18-20 or 16-20 ; university (graduate and pro-
fessional schools), 20-24. 1 It is to be noted that the most
important reform herein suggested is one involving the last
two grades of the elementary school which have long been
recognized as the part of the school system most open to
criticism on the ground of the questionable character of the
work done there.

(2} The factors of elimination and retardation : If the
problem of economy of time in education and the resulting
problems affecting the general spread of educational prod-
ucts were confined to those completing the high-school course
or higher courses, its importance, while great, would not
assume the proportions which it otherwise assumes. How-
ever, figures previously presented in Tables LV to LVII
indicate that while approximately ninety per cent of the
children in the country remain in school up to the age of
twelve or thirteen and approximately four fifths remain in
school up to the age of fourteen, only a little over two thirds
remain in school up to the age of fifteen, about one half up
to the age of sixteen, only a little over one third up to the
age of seventeen, and less than one quarter up to the age
of eighteen. With respect to the grade reached more than
three quarters of the pupils who enter reach the sixth grade
1 Bureau of Education Bulletin (1913), no. 38, p. 10.

288 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

and about one half complete the work of the elementary
school. About one third only, however, enter the first grade
of the high school, and about one eighth or one ninth com-
plete the high-school course. The resulting social and eco-
nomic loss (positive or negative) is tremendous. For th«
boy or girl who leaves school at the close of the sixth grade
little has been provided along the line of education specially
adapted to meet his special needs in life. For those who
remain through the seventh and eighth grades the same is
true though (theoretically at least) a further general educa-
tion has been provided. For those who fail to reach the high
school (two thirds of those entering the school) any form
of differentiated education adapted to meet their special
needs, or in fact to discover their special needs, is the excep-
tion rather than the rule in our public schools. .This is a
situation to be accepted as a fact and the factors of elimi-
nation and retardation must be considered as legitimate
grounds for so modifying our educational system as to pro-
vide a more adequate training for the large number of chil-
dren who leave school early. One way of accomplishing this
is to provide for more appropriate forms of education in
what are now the seventh and eighth grades, with the expec-
tation that thereby those at present eliminated in those
grades may be afforded a more efficient form of education
and the hope that by providing for differentiated courses
to some extent in the last part of the elementary school
pupils may be encouraged to carry their education further.
(3) Vocational and prevocational education: The fact that
such a large percentage of boys and girls leave school before
entering the high school and enter the field of industry with-
out definite aim and with no conception of the job, trade, or
work which they enter, has led to an emphasis by some
educators on the necessity of certain forms of vocational
or prevocational work in the last grades of the elementary

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 289

school, coordinated where possible with such work in the
secondary school. Emphasis attaches here also to the fact
that the close of the present elementary school comes at the
close of the period of compulsory education set by law in
most States and the undoubted fact that elimination in the
seventh, eighth, and first-year high-school grades is closely
correlated with the close of the compulsory attendance
period.

1 1 6. Administrative factors involved. Numerous factors
involved in the administration of the schools are of impor-
tance in connection with reforms of the articulation between
elementary and secondary education. These are of such
varied character that they defy generalization, but among
them may be mentioned several factors, for the most part
related to the considerations previously adduced, (a) It
has long been recognized that certain reforms are desirable
in the studies of the seventh and eighth grades. Such
reforms include the elimination of some obsolete and useless
material, the reduction of review work, and the reorganiza-
tion of studies so as to include educational means more
suitable for the activities of lives which the pupils will later
lead. Much pruning is desirable in the studies of the seventh
and eighth grades as at present organized.1 (6) The work of
the high school under existing conditions is crowded, es-
pecially for those pupils who are destined to enter college.
An earlier beginning of some subjects now confined to the
secondary-school program would do much to relieve the
congested work of the high school for some groups of pupils,
(c) The number of retarded and over-age pupils now found
in the lower grades of the elementary school demands atten-
tion and calls for some form of reorganization which will

1 Cf. Part I of the Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the
Study of Education, "-Minimum Essentials in Elementary School Subjects."
Cf. also Sixteenth Yearbook, Part I.

290 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

permit those pupils to enter on work which they can do
rather than perpetually review work for which they have
manifested their ineptitude. This means provision for some
different forms of education in the later grades of the
elementary school than those now found there, (d) It is
imperative that some amount of differentiated work be
provided in the seventh or eighth grades. This cannot be
accomplished under the existing organization. The adap-
tation of school work to the needs of individual differences
in capacities, interests, and probable future activities on
the part of pupils is economically impossible where small
groups of pupils are involved. If differentiated work is to
be provided, for example in the eighth grade, pupils of that
grade must be assembled in larger groups than are now
commonly found in separated elementary schools. Differ-
entiated work quite impossible in the small school becomes
feasible in the large school, (e) Provision must be made to
afford more contentful studies in the later grades of the
elementary school both for the sake of those who must
leave school early and for the encouragement of those who
can be led to continue their education into the secondary
school. (/) The acceleration of brighter pupils is at present
handicapped by the methods of promotion regularly found
in the elementary school. Promotion by subjects rather
than by grades must be instituted in the seventh and eighth
grades, (g) In many larger communities crowded high
schools offer serious social and administrative problems.
A group of junior high schools articulated with senior high
schools would do much to relieve the crowding of pupils
in a central high school. (K) In rural communities high
schools of the present type are frequently uneconomical
and sometimes impossible. In many such cases the earlier
beginning of some forms of secondary education would
make possible some degree of acquaintance with second-

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 291

ary-school work for many children who otherwise would
go without contact with any other school influences than
those now found in the elementary school.

V. THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

117. The six-grade course of secondary education. The
present movement toward the development of a six-grade
course of secondary education had its beginning in the last
decade of the nineteenth century. Certain suggestions made
by President Eliot at the meeting of the Department of
Superintendence in 1888 called attention to defects in our
school system, primarily affecting the relation between the
high school and the college, but incidentally affecting the
relation between elementary and secondary schools. In
1893 the "Committee of Ten" introduced in its report cer-
tain recommendations involving the articulation between
elementary and secondary education. Of particular inter-
est is that portion of the report which states:

In the opinion of the Committee, several subjects now reserved
for high schools, — such as algebra, geometry, natural science,
and foreign languages, — should be begun earlier than now, and
therefore within the schools classified as elementary; or, as an
alternative, the secondary school period should be made to begin
two years earlier than at present, leaving six years instead of eight
for the elementary school period. Under the present organization,
elementary subjects and elementary methods are, in the judgment
of the Committee, kept in use too long.1

Numerous suggestions were made for a readjustment of
the grades of the school system subsequent to the report
of the "Committee of Ten." In particular the "Committee
of Five" of the National Education Association in 1907,

1 Report of the Committee on Secondary School Studies, p. 45 (Bureau of
Education edition).

292 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

1908, and 1909 recommended an equal division of the
grades between elementary and secondary education. Li
1902 the "Pettee Committee" recommended the following
scheme: 1

Division School Grades Ages

p . ( Lower or Primary School 1-8 6-9

I Upper or Grammar School 4-6 9-12

«^ , ( Lower High School 7- 9 12-15

1 Upper High School 10-12 15-18

T . . ( College or Technical School . . . 18-21

iary ^ Professional or Graduate School . . . 21-24

Up to 1910 the development of six-grade high schools was
slow, only about twenty-two cities in that year reporting
six-year high-school courses of study to the Bureau of Edu-
cation. By that time, however, the movement toward the
reorganization of the last grades, of the elementary school
and of the secondary school had assumed a somewhat differ-
ent form which marked the beginning of the junior high
school or intermediate school.

118. The junior high-school movement. While numerous
attempts had been made previously in different parts of the
country to reorganize the work of the late grades of the ele-
mentary, the real beginning of the present junior high school
or intermediate school movement is probably to be found in
the reorganization of the school systems in Columbus, Ohio
(1908), Berkeley, California (1910), Concord, New Hamp-
shire (1910), and Los Angeles, California (1911). Reorgan-
ization developed rapidly thereafter in several lines. Thus
of cities included in an incomplete list making returns
to the Bureau of Education in 1914-1915, cities reported
school systems organized in such combinations of elemen-
tary, intermediate, and high-school grades as 6-1-5, 6-2-4

1 For that report in condensed form and with proposed curriculum
attached cf. Hanus, P., A Modern School, pp. 105-09.

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 293

(thirty-five cities), 6-3-3 (twenty-six cities), 6-4-2, 5-3-4. l
As a result of his study Douglass reported in 1916 that of
184 school systems, 11 were organized on a 5-3-4 plan, 77
Dn a 6—2-4 plan, 64 on a 6-3-3 plan, 10 on a 6-6 plan, and
22 according to various other plans.2 On the whole the plan
which seems likely to receive ultimate recognition is the
six-grade elementary school, followed by a junior high school
of three grades, followed by a senior high school of three
grades. Of systems now organized on the 6-2-^4 plan many
are to be considered as in a stage of transition. While the
present is noticeably a period of experimentation and such
reorganized systems of education must be considered as on
trial, there is evidence that the movement is destined to
develop rapidly within the next decade. Its status is at
present difficult to determine both because of the lack of
fixed standards and because the rapid changes which are
taking place make it difficult to secure accurate data. Re-
ports received by Douglass indicate that between three and
four hundred junior high schools or intermediate schools
were claimed to be in operation in 1916.3

119. The purposes of the junior high school. The pur-
poses of the junior high school organization are to correct
the defects now found in our school system. They involve,
therefore, the following factors.

(1) Provision for a better coordination and articulation
between elementary and secondary education and provision
for gradual transition from earlier to later grades in the
school system. This demands: (a) the close relationing of
each successive grade with the preceding grade as far as
teaching material and teaching method are concerned;

1 Briggs, T. H., in Report of the United States Commissioner of Educa-
tion (1914), vol. i, pp. 135-57.

2 Douglass, A. A., "The Junior High School," Fifteenth Yearbook of the
National Society for the Study of Education, part in, p. 88.

3 Douglass, A. A., op. cit., p. 27.

294 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

(6) gradual change from the one-teacher plan of the elemen-
tary school to the many-teacher plan of the secondary school;

(c) gradual change from largely supervised work in the
earlier grades to more independent work involving initia-
tive, self-reliance, and responsibility in the later grades;

(d) the gradual introduction of new subject matter and its
relationing to old subject matter; (e) the gradual introduc-
tion of "election"; (f) gradual change in teaching methods
and in methods of treating children.

(2) Provision earlier in the school system to adapt the
work of the school to individual differences among pupils
in capacities, aptitudes, interests, and future activities, as
well as to the differentiated needs of society. This demands :
(a) the earlier introduction of some differentiated studies
for different groups of pupils; (6) promotion of pupils by
subjects rather than by grades; (c) increased flexibility in
the administration of education in the intermediate grades;
(d) provision for the introduction of some forms of instruc-
tion which may give pupils an opportunity to explore and
test out their capacities, aptitudes, and interests; (e) provi-
sion for some forms of educational diagnosis and direction;
(/ ) recognition of the needs of those leaving school early; (g)
provision for economy of time in the case of brighter pupils.

(3) Recognition of the importance of the factors of retar-
dation and elimination. This involves : (a) reorganization of
the subject matter of the present seventh and eighth grades
so as to provide a more contentful and effective form of
education for those who must leave school early; (6) the
introduction of some prevocational education for those
pupils; (c) provision for the reduction of retardation and
elimination by improved methods of controlling progress
through the grades; (d) the encouragement of larger num-
bers of pupils to continue their education into the senior
high school.

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 295

(4) Reorganization of teaching materials and teaching
methods. The belief is growing stronger that subjects of
study in the junior high school should be organized prima-
rily with reference to the capacities and needs of the pupils
and with reference to their activities in life after the school,
and not primarily in terms of the logical organization de-
manded by the subject considered as a logically arranged
field of knowledge. The study of subjects as logically organ-
ized units or fields of knowledge should be reserved for the
work in the senior high school.

120. Difficulties to be met. No such comprehensive reor-
ganization as that contemplated by the junior high school
movement can be accomplished without involving many
readjustments and difficulties at least temporary. Many
of those difficulties may be dismissed at once on the ground
that they are but temporary problems incidental to any
effective form of reorganization. Such are those arising
in some states from established laws or regulations affecting
the distribution of public funds, the certification of teachers,
taxation, etc., the necessity of readjusting college entrance
requirements in terms of reorganized education, the bicker-
ings and political maneuvers of disgruntled principals and
teachers, wranglings over the location of schools, etc. When
these objections to the establishment of junior high schools
have been dismissed, however, there remain at least four
important problems to be considered.

(1) If all pupils were destined to continue in school
throughout the full twelve-year course and if the exigencies
of administration made it possible, it would be advisable to
have one undivided system consisting of grades one to
twelve. Neither of those assumptions hold, however, and it
is probable that they never can hold. Divisions in the school
system are made necessary by the exigencies of administra-
tion. They are to some extent made desirable by the fact

296 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

that many pupils leave school before the complete course is
covered. The division of the school system into three de-
partments as contemplated by the junior high school plan
involves the danger of creating two critical points in the
jchool system instead of the one now found between ele-
mentary and secondary education. Great care is necessary
that evils now found at the one point of division may not be
increased by the creation of two points of division. The
second divisional point in the school system (between the
junior and senior high schools) will doubtless improve the
retention of pupils up to the age of fifteen or sixteen. It will
doubtless also have some tendency to encourage elimination
at that point. Whether or not the general stimulus provided
by its organization will encourage retention beyond that
limit so as to outweigh a certain amount of elimination
fostered there remains to be seen. Experience to date would
appear to give an affirmative answer to this problem.

(2) The fundamentally important point has been raised
by Bagley1 that while "the advantages are clearly on the
side of a 'six-six' organization from the point of view of
administrative expediency and to a~ large extent from the
standpoint of educational theory" the early introduction of
the factor of .differentiation may serve to limit the factor of
integration providing " a common basis of certain ideas and
ideals and standards which go a long way toward insuring
' social solidarity ' — a basis of common thought and common
aspiration which is absolutely essential to an effective democ-
racy." This objection to the reorganized system is a serious
one if valid. Two facts, however, suggest that Bagley's
position is open to question. The first is that a basis of com-
mon thought and common aspiration must be retained in
the junior high school under any circumstances. The second

1 Bagley, W. C., "The 'Six-Six' Flan," School arid Home Education,
vol. xxxiv, p. 3.

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 297

is that the integrating function of education and the differ-
entiating function of education must be considered supple-
mentary and not antagonistic. On this theory elementary
education is not to be considered as being confined exclu-
sively to integration, nor is secondary education to be consid-
ered as confined exclusively to differentiation. Nevertheless
Bagley has called attention to a danger which must be
avoided carefully. .

(3) It is commonly estimated that the expense of educa-
tion under the junior-senior high school plan will increase
the cost of the schools. Of thirty cities reporting the cost
of the junior high school instruction to the Bureau of Edu-
cation, seventeen reported that the junior high school costs
more per capita than the elementary school, seven reported
that the cost was the same, and six qualified their answers.
Comparing the cost with that of the high school, ten re-
ported that it was the same, and twenty that it was less.
On general grounds it has been estimated that the per capita
cost will be between the present cost of elementary-school
education and secondary-school education. On the surface
at least this means added expense for the maintenance of
the school system. It must be remembered, however, that
a decrease in the amount of retardation, if brought about
through the reorganization of the system, may altogether
offset the added expense incurred. It must further be re-
membered that economy and efficiency may be attained
by increasing both expense and returns for that expense,
as well as by increasing returns for the same expense or
decreasing expense for the same returns. A broader social
and educational economy may well justify an extended
financial outlay.

(4) Changes in the form of organization, changes in cur-
riculum, changes in the form of administration, are all read-
ily subject to the fiat of educational authorities. For reform

298 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

in the effectiveness of the school system, however, such ar-
bitrary changes depend on the readiness with which instruc-
tion may be adapted to them. It is at this point that the
greatest difficulties must always be found. The proposed
reorganization includes the introduction into earlier grades
of certain studies previously found only in later grades, to-
gether with other subjects of study which are relatively
new in any department of public education. Around older
subjects of study there has developed a body of teaching
method, embodied in textbooks, incorporated in the theory
and practice of teachers, and recognized as "standard"
for pupils from one to three years older than those for
whom subjects have been provided heretofore. Further,
certain studies which it is proposed to put into the program
of the junior high school have as yet no established body
of teaching method or organization. When it is realized
that it takes more than a generation to develop a body of
method, to train teachers, and to standardize textbooks in
any given field, it must be recognized that the changes in
teachers, in methods, and in textbooks, necessary for real
reform in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, constitute
one of the greatest problems involved in the reorganization
of the schools.

NOTE : Many factors involved in the relation between elemen-
tary and secondary education and certain factors involved in the
junior-senior high school plan have already been considered in
preceding chapters. All matters of programs, curricula, and or-
ganization are dealt with in Part III, especially in Chapters XX
and XXI.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. Compare the curricula of any related elementary and secondary school
of about 1890 with the curricula of any such system after 1910.

2. Examine the curricula of elementary schools in different cities and
compare the studies offered and the relative amount of time devoted

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 299

to each. (Cf . Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study
of Education, pp. 21-27, and Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society
for the Study of Education, part in.)

8. Compare the programs of study for boys from nine to fourteen years of
age in the Prussian higher schools, in French secondary schools, and in
the four last grades of the American elementary school.

4. Examine and criticize available data concerning the relative standing
of pupils in the elementary and secondary schools. (Cf. references in
bibliography following.)

5. Compare the relative advantages and disadvantages of the 8-4, 6-6,
6-3-3, 6-2-4 plans for organization of the public schools.

- 6. What would be the advantages and disadvantages of a single twelve-
grade system without administrative or other divisions?

7. Compare and evaluate the curricula of the different junior high schools
presented in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education
(1914), vol. i, pp. 153-57. (Cf. also Douglass, A. A., in bibliography
following.)

8. Assuming that the transition from elementary education to secondary
education should be gradual, show how such specific factors as the
introduction of subject matter, changes in teaching method, etc.,
might be arranged to contribute toward that end.

9. Consider the problem of the relation between integration and differen-
tiation (common elements and diversified elements) in connection
with the different divisions, actual and proposed, of the public school
system. (Cf. Bagley, W. C., "The 'Six-Six' Plan," School and Home
Education, vol. xxxrv, no. 4 (December, 1914), pp. 119-31, and Inglis,
A. J., "The Socialization of the High School," Teachers College Record,
vol. xvi, no. 3 (May, 1915), pp. 1-12 (205-16).

10. Assuming that the per-pupil cost of the junior high school would be
approximately halfway between that of the elementary school and that
of the high school, estimate the probable added cost of the reorganized
school system on the supposition that retardation should remain con-
stant; on the supposition that it decreased one third or one hah*; on the
supposition that elimination should be decreased one third. (Cf.
Springfield, Illinois, Survey, pp. 96-97.)

11. Consider the problems of teachers for the junior high school.

12. Consider the arrangement of the course of study in any one subject in
a reorganized system of public schools.

13. Consider the problem of economy of time in education as affected by
the articulation between elementary and secondary education. (Cf.
Russell, W. F., Economy in Secondary Education.)

300 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

SELECTED REFERENCES

NOTE: The literature relating to the articulation of elementary and secon-
dary education is so voluminous that any extended bibliography is here
impossible. Hence there are included below such references only as: (a)
represent somewhat comprehensive treatments of the field; (b) the well-
considered reports of various organization, committees, departments of
education, etc. ; (c) special articles dealing especially with the most recent
phases particularly with the junior high school movement; (d) articles and
reports dealing with actual experiments. For references dealing with the
questions of individual differences concerned in the problem see the bibli-
ography for Chapter III. For those dealing with questions arising out of
retardation and elimination see the bibliography of Chapter IV.

I. General treatment:

Josselyn, H. W., "The Relation of the High School to the Elemen-
tary School," chap, v of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), The Modern
High School.

Davis, C. O., "The Reorganization of Secondary Education," chap,
iv of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School Education.

Bunker, F. F., " Reorganization of the Public School System,"

Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1916), no. 8.
II. Reports of committees, organizations, etc. :

National Education Association, Report of the Committee of Ten on
Secondary School Studies, Proceedings (1893).

National Education Association, Report of the Committee on the
Equal Division of the Twelve Years in the Public Schools between
the District and High Schools (Morrison), Proceedings (1907),
pp. 705 ff.

National Education Association, Report of Committee on Economy of
Time in Education, Proceedings (1914), pp. 206-22. Also in
Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1913), no. 38.

National Society for the Study of Education, Reports of the Com-
mittee on Minimal Essentials in Elementary-School Subjects, Four-
teenth Yearbook, part i; Sixteenth Yearbook, part I.

California Teachers' Association, Report of the Council, Sierra Edv
cational News, September, 1912. Summarized in School and Hon.
Education, vol. xxxiv, no. 8 (April, 1915), pp. 279-80,

Conference of Collegiate and Secondary Instructors, Report of
Committee, November, 1902. Condensed report (Pettee), Hanus,
P. H., A Modern School, pp. 105-09, and in Brown, J. F., The
American High School, pp. 411-15.

Meredith, A. B., "The Six- Year High School," Annual Report of the
New Jersey State Board of Education (1913), pp. 193-96.

RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION SOI

Briggs, T. H., in Report of the United States Commissioner of Educa-
tion (1914), vol. i, pp. 135-57. Contains lists of junior high schools
established up to 1914 and typical curricula, etc.
III. Special studies on the junior high school:

Briggs, T. H., "The Junior High School," Old Penn Weekly Review
(University of Pennsylvania), vol. xm, no. 32, pp. 1002-07.'

Coffman, L. D., Bagley, W. C.,,and Snedden, D. (Joint discus-
sion), "The Minimum Essentials versus the Differentiated
Course of Study in the Seventh and Eighth Grades," National
Education Association, Proceedings of the Department of Super-
intendence, vol. iv (1916), no. 6, pp. 63-86.

Douglass, A. A., "The Present Status of the Junior High School,"
Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xxn, no. 2, pp. 252-74.

Douglass, A. A., "The Junior High School," Fifteenth Yearbook of
the National Society for the Study of Education, part m. The most
comprehensive study of the junior high school movement yet
published. Bibliography of 175 titles to 1916.

Judd, C. H., "The Junior High School," School Review, vol. xxm,
pp. 25-33. (Rejoinder by Bagley, W. C., School and Home Educa-
tion, vol. xxxiv, pp. 212-16.)

Bagley, W. C., various articles in School and Home Education, vol.
xxxiv, pp. 1-5, 41, 79-80, 119-31, 212-16, 239-41, 279-80, etc.

Johnston, C. H., "Movement toward the Reorganization of Second-
ary Education," Educational Administration and Supervision,
vol. I, pp. 165-72.

Inglis, A. J., "A Fundamental Problem in the Reorganization of the
High School," School Review, vol. xxin, pp. 307-18.

Bonser, F. G., "Democratizing Secondary Education by the Six-
Three-Three Plan," Educational Administration and Supervision,
vol. I, pp. 567-76.

Snedden, D., "The Character and Extent of Desirable Flexibility
as to Courses of Instruction and Training for Youths of 12 to
14 Years of Age," Educational Administration and Supervision,
vol. n, pp. 219-34.

High School Masters' Club of Massachusetts, Report of Committee

on the Junior High School. (Contains bibliography.)
IV. Special experiments, etc. :

Carter, R. E., A Study of the Correlation of Elementary and High
School Grades of a City System, Master's Dissertation (1911),
University of Chicago. (Cf. Elementary School Teacher, vol. xn,
PP- 109 /.)

Johnson, F. W., "A Comparative Study of the Grades of Pu-
pils from Different Elementary Schools in the Subjects of the
First Year in High School," Elementary School Teacher, vol. xi,
pp. 63-78.

302 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Miles, W. R., " Comparison of Elementary and High School Grades,"
Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xvii, pp. 429-50.

Clement, J. A., Standardization of the Schools of Kansas, Doctor's

Dissertation (1912), University of Chicago.
V. Extended Bibliographies:

Douglass, A. A., in reference given above; Abelson, J., A Bibliog-
raphy of the Junior High School," Education, vol. xxxvn, pp.
122-29; Massachusetts School Masters' Club, Report of Committee
on the Junior High School, pp. 38-43.

CHAPTER

SECONDARY EDUCATION IN RELATION TO HIGHER
EDUCATION

I. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND PRESENT STATUS

121. Early relations. Until within a relatively recent
period the articulation between secondary education and
higher education (as represented by the college or university)
has always been closer than the relation between elementary
and secondary education. Such a situation was largely due
to the fact that elementary education, especially in Europe,
was conceived as appropriate for the lower classes, while
both secondary education and higher education were de-
signed for the more fortunate classes who had more leisure
for education and more need of it in the leading position
which they occupied in society. Hence the earlier secondary
schools were conceived as schools whose most important
function was preparation leading to higher education for
professions, especially the ministry, law, and medicine, or
for that degree of culture deemed suitable for the upper
classes. This conception has always been dominant in
European countries, was dominant in this country until
a relatively recent period, and was not abandoned when
the conception developed that the secondary school had
other important functions in addition to the legitimate
function of preparation for higher education. The essential
forms of secondary education, which had developed when
the main function of the secondary school was preparation
for the college or university, continued to remain in force
long after it was realized that other functions were involved.

304 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

The justification for this state of affairs was assumed to lie
in the belief that the sort of training provided in preparation
for higher education was that best suited also for all other
activities in life, and as long as such a conception obtained
little change was made in the general economy of the second-
ary school to differentiate the work of the school for pupils
preparing for higher education and those who were destined
not to enter higher institutions. The conception that the
work of the secondary school should be differentiated to
conform to the needs of various groups of pupils was a
development in theory during the nineteenth century. In
France, Germany, and America it was the central issue of a
century-long struggle. Its fulfillment in practice is as yet
by no means complete.

122. The Latin grammar school and the college. The
recognized purpose of the Latin grammar school of the
American colonies was preparation for admission to college.
This appears from the law passed by the General Court of
the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1647 which provided for
the education of boys "so far as they may be fitted for the
university." What college preparation meant at that time
and later is illustrated by the requirements for entrance to
Harvard College in 1642: 1

When any scholar is able to read Tully (Cicero) or such like
classical author extempore, and made and speake true Latin in
verse and prose, suo (ut aiunf) Marte, and decline perfectly the
paragigms of nounes.and verbes in ye Greeke tongue, then may hee
bee admitted to ye college, nor shall any claime admission before
such qualifications.

Similar requirements of proficiency in Latin and Greek
remained practically the sole requirements for admission

1 Translation attached to the Latin version of The Statutes, Laws, etc.,
of Harvard College, College Book 1. Cf. Broome, E. C., A Historical and
Critical Discussion of College Admission Requirements.

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 305

to colleges throughout the colonial period, and the relation
between college and grammar school did not change mate-
rially within that period. In Massachusetts the situation was
absurd. By the law of 1789 and according to the census of
1790 about 113 grammar schools were required. According
to the census of 1820 about 173 such schools were required.
As late as 1825 the freshman class entering Harvard was
only seventy-one, and probably not more than one hundred
boys from Massachusetts entered college at all in any one
year. Thus there were more schools required in the State
than there were boys entering college in any one year.

123. The early academy and the college. The academy
in America in many cases originated for the distinct pur-
pose of emphasizing the education of boys and girls who
did not intend to enter college. It has ended by becoming
the "preparatory school" par excellence and in some cases
itself developed into a college. It is not to be supposed,
however, that the academy did not provide for college prep-
aration in its early days. In most of the early academies
provision was regularly made for those who intended to go
to college, and in time there developed a large number of
academies which were designed to prepare pupils for par-
ticular colleges, frequently being officially connected with
the college itself. Commonly separate courses were pro-
vided for those going to college and for those not going to
college, so that in the academy first were developed differ-
entiated courses later to be taken over in part by the public
high school. It is not necessary here to emphasize the fact
that many academies more or less encroached on the field of
the college and in some cases became serious rivals of the
poorer colleges.

124. The public high school and the college. The first
high school established in the United States was established
hi order to provide secondary education for boys who were

306 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

not intended for college. For this reason it has sometimes
been assumed that the public high school in its early days
confined its attention to education other than for college
entrance and neglected the latter. It is true that the Eng-
lish Classical (High) School of Boston was designed for the
education of boys who did not intend to go to college and
that it ignored college preparation. It must be remembered,
however, that college preparation was already provided for
in the Boston Public Latin School and that in Boston the
English High School was established to supplement the
work of the Latin School, not to replace it. Except in a few
scattered cases where the old Latin grammar schools sur-
vived the newly established public high school provided
secondary education both for boys who were going to college
and for boys and girls not so destined. While it is true that
the law which began the public high-school movement in
Massachusetts (and in the United States) provided for two
types of secondary schools, the lower of which did not pro-
vide an education adequate for admission to college, it is
also true that such differentiation existed in the statutes only
and that when a high school of any type was established
it almost never failed to include in its curriculum those
studies necessary for admission to college — Latin, Greek,
mathematics, etc. Hence from its beginning the public high
school has always included in its economy provision for
preparing its pupils for admission to college. In fact not
until within the past few decades, if even now, has prepa-
ration for college ceased to be the dominant factor affect-
ing the character of the work done in the public high
school.

The specific requirements for entrance to college as affect-
ing the public secondary school will be considered more
fully in later sections, but certain general conditions may
be mentioned here. First, many studies once confined to

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 307

the college curriculum have gradually backed down into the
curriculum of the high school. Second, the general scope of
the subject-matter of the academy and public high school
has always far transcended the requirements for admission
to college, and in the introduction of new subjects the high
school has constantly anticipated the requirements set by
the college. Third, the number of pupils attending the high
schools has increased greatly and the number of pupils pre-
paring for college has increased greatly, but the propor-
tion of college preparatory pupils has constantly decreased.
Fourth, the probable extent to which the public high school
may go in organizing its system so as to provide specific
preparation for college has assumed importance because
of the difficulties attendant on the proper coordination of
the work for various groups attending the high school and
the necessity of consulting the interests and needs of the
many who do not go to college as well as the needs of the
relatively few who do.

125. The rise of public State universities. The establish-
ment of State colleges and universities, particularly in the
West and Middle West, did much to simplify and improve
the relation between the secondary schools and colleges in this
country. As long as colleges were private or semi-private
institutions the articulation between secondary and higher
education was determined by the more or less arbitrary
requirements imposed by the college authorities. Confusion,
imperfect articulation, and lack of uniformity were the
natural results of such a situation. But with the rise of
State colleges and universities considered as integral parts
of a public system of education organically related to the
secondary schools a new element was introduced and a
closer coordination between the two institutions was ulti-
mately required. The conception of a complete system of
education, the parts of which should be closely articulated

308 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

with each other, was found in the first quarter of the nine-
teenth century and even before. Thus it found its way into
the constitution of the State of Indiana adopted in 1816
providing for "a general system of education, ascending in
regular gradation from township schools to a state univer-
sity wherein tuition shall be gratis and equally open to all." l
Nevertheless, it was not until the impetus of Federal aid was
given to States by the Morrill Act of 1862 that the move-
ment began in earnest, and it was not until the last quarter
of the nineteenth century that its development noticeably
improved the relation between secondary education and
college education. Still more recent has been the develop-
ment of municipal colleges which, within their limited fields,
have aided the closer articulation of secondary schools and
higher institutions.

126. The secondary school and the normal school. The
relation between the secondary school and the normal school
has always involved confusion. For a long period one of the
important functions of the secondary school was conceived to
be the training of teachers for the elementary school. Even
at present it is by no means the exception to find teacher-
training courses in the public high schools. In 1914-15
pupils were reported to be enrolled in training courses for
teachers in certain public high schools of every State in the
Union except Rhode Island, South Carolina, Nevada, and
the District of Columbia. Such pupils in 1914-15 num-
bered 25,721 (3501 boys and 22,220 girls), of whom sixty
per cent were enrolled in high schools of the North Central
States. In Kansas nearly fifteen per cent of the girls en-
rolled in public high schools were enrolled in teacher-train-
ing courses. In many States the demand for elementary-
school teachers has led to the introduction or retention of
such courses largely on the grounds of expediency. It
1 Constitution of the State of Indiana (1816), art. ix, sec. 2.

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 309

should be noted, however, that such a practice has danger-
ous tendencies in that it frequently leads toward educa-
tional in-breeding, results commonly in over-ambitious
attempts toward higher education in, the high schools, and
frequently interferes with the proper development of normal
schools by bringing them into competition with the public
high schools.

As the public high school in some cases has encroached on
the field of the normal school, so has the normal school in
many cases encroached on the field of the public high school.
In many States the normal school has occupied itself with
education essentially secondary in character. Even at
present the practice is by no means uncommon of admitting
students to the normal school who have had no high-school
education, or one to three years of high-school work. Where
normal schools were essentially private institutions, as
formerly in Pennsylvania, standards of admission were ex-
tremely lax and the normal schools frequently became actual
competitors of the public high school for purposes of second-
ary education. The situation is thus described for Pennsyl-
vania in 1910 by Holland: *

The Pennsylvania State normal schools and the public high
schools are to-day in direct conflict. In previous chapters it has
been shown that a large number of the normal-school students
belong to the high-school period, and their academic preparation is
such that they should be attending the secondary schools in their
own neighborhood. . . . Strange to say the normal-school princi-
pals as late as 1910 agreed upon a four-year course of study that
possesses many characteristics of the ordinary high school and
places their institutions in direct competition with the rapidly
increasing public high schools.

As a general principle it may be stated that normal schools
should be so related to the public secondary school as to

1 Holland, E. O., The Pennsylvania State Normal Schools and Public
School System, p. 80. Cf. also ibid., pp. 2, 37-54, 80-90.

310 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

receive its students therefrom and continue their education,
directed along special lines appropriate to their later voca-
tion, from the point at which the secondary school closes.
Any departure from that principle must be considered as a
temporary expediency to be abandoned at the earliest oppor-
tunity. As a corollary it follows that training courses for
teachers should not have a place in the public secondary
school except as a temporary expediency.

127. The overlapping of secondary school and college.
The curriculum of the public high school has always tran-
scended the requirements of subject-matter set up by the
colleges for admission and frequently has included subjects
regularly included in the college curriculum. Likewise the
college curriculum regularly includes subjects of study which
are essentially of secondary-school grade, e.g., courses in
foreign languages for beginners, elementary courses in the
sciences, etc. Thus there is always a certain amount of over-
lapping in the curricula of the secondary school and college.
In the average high school it would not be at all difficult to
map out a one- or two-year "post-graduate" course which
(with respect to the subjects studied and the amount of time
devoted to them) would be quite comparable to possible
freshman or sophomore courses in college.

For more than a quarter of a century occasional attempts
have been made to extend the work of the high school upward
so as to provide what might be called "graduate" work,
more or less comparable to the earlier part of the college
course. In certain cities, notably in Joliet, Illinois, such
attempts met with success. It was not until 1907, however,
that any comprehensive organization was attempted covering
more than one community. In that year the State Legisla-
ture of California passed a law providing:

The high-school board of any high-school district, or trustees of
any county high school may prescribe post-graduate courses of

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 311

study for the graduates of such high school or other high schools,
which course of study shall approximate the studies prescribed in
the first two years of university courses.1

The first city to take advantage of this opportunity was
Fresno, which established such a post graduate high-school
course in 1910. By March, 1915, more than twelve "junior
colleges"2 had been established in California, and about
two thousand pupils were enrolled in post-graduate courses
in that State. In other States a few similar institutions
have been established in spite of the difficulties encountered
in existing legal technicalities, lack of close cooperation
on the part of colleges of the usual type, and the element of
increased expense.

Claims for the values of the junior college are made:

It offers peculiar advantages, first, to the student who cannot
afford to live away from home; second, to the young and immature
student who is not yet ready to cope with the problems incident
upon life at a large university; third, to the student who has failed
to get his recommendation for college but who, by faithful and
consistent study, may prove himself ready for advanced work;
and fourth, to the student who does not intend to enter college,
but who desires to continue his study along certain lines.'

To these claims may be added the claims that increased
proportions of high-school graduates may be encouraged
to attempt appropriate forms of higher education and the
claim that in the larger universities (especially State uni-
versities) work is being done at public expense in higher

1 School Law of California (1915), p. 151.

2 The use of the term "junior college" as here employed must be dis-
tinguished from its use as employed for certain institutions in Wisconsin,
Missouri, and Virginia. Cf. Report of the United States Commissioner of
Education (1914), vol. I, pp. 160-67.

1 Announcement of the Santa Barbara (California) Junior College,
quoted at p. 22 of Report of the Commissioner of Secondary Schools, Califor-
nia State Board of Education, 1914.

812 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

institutions with much higher cost that might better be done
in junior colleges at much lower cost. Further it is urged
that the large size of classes entering the first year of college
or university work render impossible that degree of indi-
vidual attention most desirable.

At present the movement must be considered as in the
experimental stage. Numerous difficulties, especially lack
of college and university cooperation, have interfered with
its development. In all probability the dominant factor
determining the growth and status of the junior college will
be the increased financial outlay necessary. It should, how-
ever, be remembered that much of the increased expenditure
on the extended high school will be offset by the reduced
college expenditure.

128. High-school pupils entering higher institutions.
Opinions frequently expressed concerning the number and
proportion of high-school graduates going to higher insti-
tutions commonly err in one of two ways, either overesti-
mating or underestimating the number of such pupils. In
sections 42-^43 figures have already been presented indicat-
ing the percentages of pupils in the various grades of the
high school destined to enter higher institutions. From
those figures it appears that those pupils constitute an im-
portant portion of the secondary-school population (one
sixth of those who enter the secondary school, one quarter
of those in the second year, one third of those in the third
year, nearly one half of those in the fourth year, one half of
those who graduate, and more than one quarter of all pupils
in the high school at any one time). This group represents
one of the largest roughly homogeneous groups of pupils
in the public high schools. Nevertheless, it must be recog-
nized that it represents a portion only, and by no means the
largest portion, of the high-school population. More numer-
ous and certainly not less important are those pupils who

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

313

either will not complete the high-school course, dropping
out after one, two, or three years of secondary education,
or completing the high-school course, will not continue their
education in school beyond that limit. While exact figures
are not available whereby the relative proportions of those
two general groups may be determined, the data presented
in the following table indicate that the proportion has
changed decidedly even within the past two decades.

TABLE CVII. NUMBER OF COLLEGE STUDENTS TO EACH
1000 HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS 1893-94 — 1913-14*

Periods

College and
university
students

High-school
pupils

College and uni-
versity students
to each 1000
high-school pu-
pils

1893-94

88,471

289,274

305

1903-04-

128,063

635,808

201

1913-14

216,493

1,218,804

173

* Compiled from data given in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education
(1914), vol. II, pp. 192, 409.

The changing population of the public high school has
made imperative changes in its economy. In the past the
relatively large proportion of pupils entering the high
school who were destined for higher education and the
somewhat definite and tangible goal set up for the education
of those pupils in the high school, have determined the cur-
riculum and general economy of the secondary school.
Within recent years the increased proportion of high-school
pupils not destined for higher education and the formula-
tion of more definite and tangible aims for the education of
those pupils, have demanded the subordination of college-
admission functions to more diversified aims affecting the
larger proportion of secondary-school pupils. To a certain

314 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

extent conditions have been practically reversed. The
former problem involved the question of how the public
secondary school might best be articulated with higher
education: the present problem involves the question of how
the higher institutions may best be articulated with the
public secondary school. The former theory that that kind
of secondary education which was best fitted to prepare pu-
pils for college was also well fitted to educate pupils not so
destined is being supplanted by the theory that secondary
education has its various functions to perform and higher
education must take its origin at the point where the sec-
ondary school leaves off.

Assuming that the preparation of pupils for admission to
higher institutions is a legitimate function of public secondary
education, but that such propaedeutic function is subordi-
nate to more general functions of secondary education, the
problem of the relation of secondary education to higher
education becomes a question largely of the amount and
flexibility of college entrance requirements and the methods
by which high-school graduates are selected for admission
to the college or other higher institution. These factors are
considered in some detail in following sections.

II. COLLEGE ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS

129. Early requirements and changes. The earliest
requirements for admission to college in America were lim-
ited to the classical languages and literatures. During the
eighteenth century in some cases the elements of arithme-
tic were added to the requirements, at Yale as early as 1745.
Up to the close of the eighteenth century Latin, Greek, and
arithmetic were the only subjects required for admission
to the existing American colleges. As long as the dominant
function of the secondary school was conceived to be prep-

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 815

aration for college and as long as the college itself aimed
toward a single uniform course of study with special refer-
ence to training for the higher professions, little change was
to be expected in the admission requirements. However,
when the character and scope of secondary education was
changed, as in the case of the academy and high-school
movements, the enriched curriculum of the secondary school
made it possible for the colleges to enlarge the scope of their
admission requirements, and some of the newer subjects
were added to those requirements, e.g., geography, algebra,
geometry, and history. It is to be noted that the first
change was one of increase in the amount and number
of requirements rather than one of differentiation. In
general, throughout the nineteenth century, there was a
tendency to increase constantly the number of subjects
and the amount of preparation required for entrance to
college.

While changes in the scope of the secondary school were
occurring somewhat analogous changes were taking place
hi the colleges and universities. The nineteenth century
brought with it new demands on the colleges as well as on
the secondary school — demands for changes in the aims
and functions of college education which finally resulted in
differentiated courses of study and differentiated institu-
tions. Throughout the seventeenth century the main pur-
pose of the college was the training of ministers, more than
two thirds of 'college graduates entering that profession.
During the eighteenth century the proportion of graduates
entering the ministry decreased while the proportions of
those entering the professions of law and medicine increased,
the three professions together attracting more than three-
fifths of all college graduates during the eighteenth century
and the first half of the nineteenth century. The period
from about 1850 to the present has been one of constantly

316 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

increasing differentiation of the college student body,
These changes are clearly indicated in the following table.

TABLE CVIII. THE DISTRIBUTION OF COLLEGE AND UNIVER-
SITY GRADUATES: PERCENTS ENTERING VARIOUS PROFES-
SIONS *

e 1

Periods

•§

"3-w"|

"§

.0 v

^ M

•5

£ u

•5

3 -S.

1643-1645

70.0

5.0

15.0

1696-1700 ....

65.6

1.6

3.1

4.7

1.6

9.4

14.7

1746-1750. ..

37.9

7.5

15.8

4.2

9.2

6.2

2.5

16.7

1796-1800 . . .

21.4

30.5

8.4

5.7

5.6

1.1

2.4

24.7

1846-1850 . . .

23.1

25.8-

10.8

10.1

10.0

1.8

1.5

2.9

1.9

13.1

1871-1875. ..

16.7

28.1

8.5

13.2

16.4

1.2

2.4

2.5

8.4

1896-1900. ..

5.9

15.6

6.6

26.7

18.8

1.0

3.5

1.1

18.9

* Burritt, B. B., Professional Distribution of College and University Graduates, Bureau of
Education Bulletin (1912), no. 19, p. 144. The effect of the development of higher education
for women may be observed in the proportion of college graduates becoming educators.

With the introduction of differentiated courses in the
college and with the development of special colleges, such
as those for engineering and agriculture, there grew up differ-
ent sets of admission requirements and a lack of uniformity
therein. Eventually the variation in admission require-
ments resulted in an intolerable burden on the secondary
schools.

130. The amount of preparation required. Recent at-
tempts to secure a certain amount of uniformity and stand-
ardization in college admission requirements have led to
substantial agreement in defining those requirements in
terms of "units." "A unit represents a year's study in any
subject in a secondary school, constituting approximately
a quarter of a full year's work." l This assumes that the
length of the school year is from thirty-six to forty weeks,
that a period is from forty to sixty minutes in length, and
1 Bureau of Education Bulletin (1916), no. 20, p. 8.

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

317

that the study is pursued for four or five periods a week;
but under ordinary circumstances, a satisfactory year's
work in any subject cannot be accomplished in less than
one hundred and twenty sixty-minute hours, or their equiv
alent.1 A large proportion of colleges and universities now
state their requirements in terms of units as thus defined.
Current practice regarding the amount of preparation re-
quired by standard colleges for admission may be seen from
the following table.

TABLE CIX*

Number of units required

7 t '1 il '

Num-

ber

14.5

15.5

16.5

17.5

Aver-
age

Colleges of liberal arts. . . .

204

116

14.8

Colleges of engineering . . .

14.7

Colleges of agriculture. . . .

14.7

Total

320

187

14.7

* Kingsley, C. D., College Entrance Requirements, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1913),
DO. 7, p. 7.

It will be noted that one college only (Bryn Mawr) re-
quires more work than can readily be accomplished by
the high-school pupil in his four-year course. Hence, with
respect to admission requirements, such' difficulties as may
be found in articulating the secondary school with the col-
lege are to be found in the character and distribution of the
units required rather than in the amount of preparation
demanded.

131. "Prescribed," "Accepted," and "Elective" sub-
jects. Much more important than the question of the
amount of preparation for admission to college (where the
amount is reasonable) is the question of the amount of ri-
gidity or flexibility found in those requirements. When all
1 Bureau of Eucation Bulletin (1916), no. 20, p. 8.

318 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

subjects required for admission to college were prescribed
and the amounts of material to be mastered in those sub-
jects were fixed, the secondary school which desired to fit
any of its pupils for admission to college was under the
necessity of determining its curriculum on the basis of the
college admission requirements, to the detriment of those
pupils not destined for a college education. Such rigidity,
once the rule, no longer obtains. The oldest method was to
prescribe definite subjects for admission to college and to
demand specific amounts of those subjects of all candidates
for admission. This was modified during the last half of
the nineteenth century in such a way as to prescribe defi-
nite amounts of work in certain subject groups, — English,
mathematics, foreign languages, science, and history, —
but to permit the election of the particular language, sci-
ence, and history. Later still this method was further mod-
ified so that certain amounts of prescribed subjects were
specified and other subjects allowed to be chosen from lists
of "accepted subjects." Finally the method of admission
has in some cases been so modified as to allow a "free
margin" of "elective" subjects which may be chosen from
any of the subjects accepted by an approved high school
toward graduation. In a few cases the extreme form of this
method has been adopted, allowing a free election of the
entire fifteen units required. The practice of allowing a
"free margin" is not, however, the rule in most colleges,
and in general uniformity is lacking, in some cases subjects
required by certain colleges not even being accepted in
others of equal rank.1

132. The distribution of prescribed units. While there
is wide variation in the manner in which prescribed units
are distributed, there is also at present considerable uni-
formity in the more essential elements involved and in
1 Kingsley, C. D., op. cit., pp. 17-18.

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 319

theory agreement is general that the high-school course,
where preparation for admission to college is considered
legitimate, should include at least three units of English,
one of natural science, and one of social science.

These five units, together with two or two and one half units of
mathematics almost uniformly included constitute one half of the
total number of units required for admission, and the prescription
of these units has comparatively little effect in reducing flexibility
except when the college specifies some particular science or epoch
of history.1

In 1899 the Committee of Ten on College Entrance
Requirements recommended that the following ten units
should be included in the high-school course and in college
entrance requirements:

Four units in foreign language (no language accepted in less than
two units), two units in mathematics, two in English, one in his-
tory, and one in science.2

The recommendations of that committee did much to
reduce the variability which had previously existed, but it
failed to produce satisfactory conditions, largely because of
the requirements in mathematics and the fact that many
colleges required a greater amount of foreign language than
that recommended by the committee.

Certain features found in present conditions are worthy
of note. In a study of 204 colleges of liberal arts Kingsley
found that 10 colleges (in 1912) did not prescribe any par-
ticular subject for graduates of fully approved high schools.
All colleges that prescribed any subject prescribed English
and in some cases English was the only subject prescribed.
Every college that prescribed any subject other than Eng-

1 Kingsley, C. D., op. cit., p. 11.

* National Education Association. Report of Committee on College En-
trance Requirements, p. 32.

320 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

lish prescribed mathematics. In the case of foreign lan-
guages was found the greatest variation in prescribed units.
The present tendency is to reduce the amount of foreign
language, both in high-school courses and in college admis-
sion requirements and to permit a choice between ancient
and modern languages. A student who can offer no Latin
and only three units of German can meet the foreign-lan-
guage requirements of 110 colleges of liberal arts and become
a candidate for the Bachelor of Arts degree in 73 of those
colleges. Out of 204 colleges of liberal arts 22 admit stu-
dents without any language other than English. Only 94 out
of 204 colleges of liberal arts prescribe any natural science
for admission. History is prescribed by 163 of those colleges.
Flexibility in the curriculum of the high school which
must provide secondary education for those going to college
and those not is greatly affected by the extent to which the
colleges recognize as counting toward admission the various
subjects commonly found in the high-school course. For
1912 Kingsley gives the following table of subjects accepted
by colleges of liberal arts as counting toward admission to
the bachelor of arts course.

TABLE CX. NUMBER OF SUCH COLLEGES ACCEPTING
VARIOUS SUBJECTS FOR ADMISSION *

Subject*

No,

Subjects

No.

Subjects

No.

Latin ... .

203

Zoology . .

175

Business

Greek. . . .
German . .

202
197

Physiography. .
Physiology ....

174
151

Household economics. . .
Geology. . ,

79
64

Physics. . .

196

Drawing

124

Music

Chemistry .

194

Spanish

118

Astronomy

French . . .

192

Shopwork

Agriculture

Botany. . .

181

Economics

General science

(Others will consider subjects not commonly accepted.)
* Kingsley, op. cit., p. 27.

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

321

Current practice (1912) in the distribution of prescribed
and elective units may be seen from the following table.

TABLE CXI *

Colleges
of liberal
arts

Colleges
of engi-
neering

Colleget
of agri-
culture

Total

Number of colleges considered

203

319

Prescribed units, average number

10.7

10 1

8 1

10 2

English

2 9

3 0

2 9

Mathematics

2 3

3 1

2 2

2 5

Foreign language

4 0

2 0

1 2

3 1

Natural Science

0 5

1 0

0 7

Social Science

1 0

0 9

0 8

0 9

Drawing

0 0

0 1

0 0

Elective units, average number

4 1

4 6

6 6

4 5

Required units, average number

14.8

14.7

14 7

* Compiled from data given by Kingsley, C. D., op. cit., pp. 28, 73, 89.

It is to be noted from this table that the only require-
ments likely to cramp the work of the high school in any
important way are the requirements in English, mathe-
matics, and foreign language, and of these the most notice-
able is the requirement in foreign languages for admission
to the colleges of liberal arts or the "general" college. In
all three of these subject groups the problem centers largely
around the necessity of so distributing the pupil's work in
the secondary school that in some fields his education shall
proceed beyond the elementary phases and at the same time
that the pupil shall receive some insight into a variety of
fields of knowledge and training. With unlimited election
of subject for admission to college it is possible (where the
secondary school permits) for the student entering college
to have studied the elementary phases of a number of sub-

322 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDAEY EDUCATION

jects and never have carried his acquaintance with any one
subject or group of subjects beyond the elementary or in-
troductory stage. With recognition of the desirability of a
certain amount of concentration in one or more fields, to-
gether with a certain amount of distribution in other fields,
there is a growing tendency for colleges to adapt admission
requirements and for secondary schools to adapt courses of
study so as to provide for such concentration and distribu-
tion. This is obvious in the admission requirements of such
colleges as the University of Chicago, Harvard University,
etc., and in the recommendations of the Committee of the
National Education Association on the Articulation of High
School and College (1911).

133. Recommendations of the Committee on Articula-
tion. In 1910 a committee was appointed by the Secondary
Department of the National Education Association to con-
sider the problem of the articulation of the high school and
college. The committee's report was accepted in 1911. The
substance of that report is indicated by the recommenda-
tions made regarding a well-planned high-school course.1

1. The quantitative requirement should be 15 units. The defini-
tion of the unit there adopted is that given in Section 132 above.

2. Every high-school course should include at least three units
of English, one unit of social science (including history), and one
unit of natural science.

3. Every high-school course should include the completion of
two majors of 3 units each and one minor of 2 units, and one of the
majors should be English. The following subject groups are recom-
mended as majors: three units of English; three units of mathe-
matics; three units of one foreign language; three units of social
science; three units of natural science.

4. The requirement in mathematics and in foreign languages
should not exceed 2 units in mathematics, and 2 units of one lan-
guage other than English.

1 Proceedings of the National Education Association (1911), pp. 559-67.
Cf. Kingsley, op. cit., pp. 97-105.

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 323

5. Of the total 15 units, not less than 11 units should consist of
English, foreign language, mathematics, social science (including
history), natural science, or other work conducted by recitations
and home study. The other 4 units should be left as a margin to be
used for additional academic work or for mechanic arts, household
science, commercial work, and any other kind of work that the
best interests of the student appear to require.

4 (a). In place of either two units of mathematics or two units
of foreign language, the substitution, under proper supervision,
should be allowed of two units, consisting of a second unit of social
science (including history) and a second unit of natural science.

According to these recommendations three general group-
ings would then be possible for the ten or eleven units in
prescribed groups:

TABLE CXH*

A or B or C

English 3 33

Foreign language 2 2 0

Mathematics 2 0 2

Social science 1 2 2

Natural science 1 2 2

Total specified 9 99

To be added to complete second major . 1 or 2 1 1

Total 10 or 11 10 10

* From the Supplementary Report of the Committee on Articidation. p. 566. Cf . Kingsley,
op. cit., p. 101.

It will be noted that the essential principle of this plan
is the grouping of parts of subjects or of allied subjects with
more or less freedom of choice within groups, thus provid-
ing for consecutive and fairly advanced work in at least
two or three fields, and still leaving sufficient freedom to
allow flexibility in the work of the secondary school.

324 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

III. METHODS OF SELECTING STUDENTS FOR
ADMISSION TO COLLEGE

134. Examination and certificating systems. Closely re-
lated to the problems of subject requirements for admission
to college are problems involved in the methods by which
the selection is made of those who are fitted to take up the
work of the college. The interest here enters on those prob-
lems as affecting the work of the secondary school rather
than as affecting the college. Historically the fitness of high-
school graduates for admission to college, until within the
past few decades, has always been tested by examinations.
Around the system of examinations for admission to college
there grew up a body of formality and machinery which seri-
ously interfered with the transition of the student from one
institution to the other, thus creating an important "break"
in the system of education. Recognition of this "break" in
our system of education and the rise of public State colleges
and universities have led within the past few decades to the
introduction and rapid development of "certificating" or
"accrediting" systems, whereby successful work accom-
plished in the high school is assumed to be an adequate indi-
cation of fitness for admission to college. The operation of
the two different systems and its effect on the work of the
secondary school are deserving of consideration.

135. Examination methods in practice. As long as the
early colleges in this country drew their students from
secondary schools where there was little opportunity for
close observation of the work done, and as long as there ex-
isted little uniformity in the character of the work done in
those schools, the examination system was the only method
possible for selecting candidates who were fit for college
work. With the increase in the number of colleges with vary-
ing requirements and with varying forms of examination

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 325

considerable confusion arose, and the difficulties of prepara-
tion and of selection became great. To meet those difficul-
ties a number of methods were adopted looking toward uni-
formity and the simplification of the system of examinations.
Among these the most important from the view of exami-
nations was the establishment of the College Entrance Ex-
amination Board in 1900. Originally the aim of this board
was to provide uniform examinations for all candidates for
admission to the colleges which formed the association. It
has resulted in the establishment of an examination system
the results of which are accepted for admission to practically
every college in the country although in practice the major-
ity of those who' take the examinations enter coUeges in the
North Atlantic States and come from those States. In the
first examinations conducted by the board less than one
thousand candidates were examined. In 1915 nearly five
thousand candidates were examined. Further examples of
centralized examination systems, though differing widely
from that mentioned above, are found in the Examinations
conducted by the Board of Regents in New York State, and
to some extent in the systems of Minnesota and Florida.

An important modification of the examination system was
made when several colleges adopted the plan in whole or in
part of testing candidates by means of "comprehensive"
examinations designed to test the power of the candidate
rather than specific and detailed accomplishment in certain
subjects. The character of such examinations and their
bearing on the work of the secondary school may be seen
from the substance of a memorandum presented to the Col-
lege Entrance Examination Board:

To be most useful the new comprehensive papers must be
adapted: (1) to such variety of school instruction as exists in the
several subjects — that is, they must not prescribe methods, but
must recognize the general principle that the schools determine

326 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

how they shall teach a subject and that the College tests results or
power; (2) to different stages of training in the subjects in which
they are set — that is, they must give boys opportunity to show
their power whether they have had the minimum or the maximum
amount of training given in school.1

The adoption of such a plan for comprehensive examina-
tions (in addition to the ordinary examination) by the
College Entrance Examination Board in 1916 permits
greater flexibility in the work of the secondary school
wherever advantage is taken of the opportunity.

136. Advantages and disadvantages of examinations. Ex-
aminations must always be necessary when no other ade-
quate means exist whereby the fitness of candidates can be
determined. In the majority of cases, however, examina-
tions cannot be justified on the ground of necessity only.
Among the claims that are made of the advantages of the
examination system are the following: (1) that the examina-
tion is the best test of the candidate's fitness; (2) that
examinations afford an opportunity and impelling stimulus
to reorganize as a whole material previously studied; (3) that
examinations stimulate the endeavor of the boy or girl in
high-school work by offering a definite objective point;
(4) that examinations afford training in meeting crises. In
the case of college entrance examinations the last claimed
advantage may be ignored on the ground that any one of
two sets of examination are inadequate to produce the train-
ing claimed. The second and third advantages claimed un-
doubtedly possess some validity, though it may be noted
in connection with the second that the organization of
material in review is a matter of method not necessarily in-
volving examinations. In connection with the third claim
it may be noted that certain evils are also involved.

1 College Entrance Examination Board, Fifteenth Annual Report of the
Secretary (1915), pp. 4-5.

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 327

To all these possible advantages claimed for the examina-
tion method must be opposed many disadvantages. It may
be noted first that single tests commonly do not indicate
the true status of an individual with regard to any single
mental trait, much less with regard to the complex mental
traits involved in any subject such as forms the basis of the
college-entrance examinations. The true status of an indi-
vidual in any mental trait is to be determined by a number
of separate measurements. In the second place the varia-
bility of judgments and the personal equation of the markers
enter largely into the interpretation of the ability manifested
by the examinee, as has been shown clearly by the investiga-
tions of Starch and Elliott and others.1 Thus in marking the
same examination paper the grading of one marker may
differ from that of another to such an extent as to invalidate
completely the gradings of a large number of candidates.
The present writer found in the case of thirteen geometry
papers marked by thirteen readers of the College Entrance
Examination Board ranges as large as twenty-seven and
thirty-three points on a percentile scale between the highest
and the lowest markers of the same paper, and an average
deviation as high as 5.57 per cent from the central tendency
of the marks assigned. The average deviation for the thir-
teen markers grading thirteen papers for the Board was 3.69
points on a percentile scale.2

In the third place, it may be noted that the examinations
as usually conducted fail to determine with even a fair degree

1 Starch, D., and Elliott, E. C., "The Reliability of Grading Work in
English," School Review, vol. xx, pp. 442-57; same, "History," ibid., vol.
xxi, pp. 676-81; same, "Mathematics," ibid., vol. xxi, pp. 254-59. Cf.
Starch, D., "Reliability and Distribution of Grades," Science, vol. xxxvui,
pp. 630-36; same, Educational Measurements, pp. 3-15. Cf. Kelly, F. J.,
Teachers' Marks, pp. 51-84.

2 It should be stated that the figures were secured before the markers
had "standardized" their marking system and hence are higher than the
final variability.

328 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

of accuracy the fitness of candidates to do college work.
Here the results of Thorndike's investigation are in point.1
Thorndike compared the standings of students on examina-
tion for entrance to Columbia University with their stand-
ings while in college. The results of his investigation showed
that success in college work cannot be estimated from suc-
cess in the entrance examinations

with enough accuracy to make the entrance examinations worth
taking or to prevent gross and intolerable injustice from being done
to many individuals. For instance, 6 out of the 130 received the
same average entrance mark — 61. In their college work of junior
year, 1 averaged a trifle above D; 1 half-way from D to C; one a
little above C; and 2 received A in four subjects out of five, and
B in the other. In freshman and sophomore year, the range was
nearly as great. . . .

It is certain that the traditional entrance examinations, even
when as fully safeguarded as in the case of those given by the Col-
lege Entrance Examination Board, do not prevent incompetents
from getting into college; do not prevent students of excellent
promise from being discouraged, improperly conditioned or barred
out altogether; do not measure fitness for college well enough to
earn the respect of students or teachers; and do intolerable injus-
tice to individuals.

On the other hand, Jones maintains relatively high corre-
lations between the standing of students on entrance exami-
nations and in the freshman year of college, basing his con-
clusions on such figures as are shown in Table CXIII.

The defects of the examination system considered above
have to do largely with the question from the standpoint of
the college or the entire system of education. Further de-
fects are claimed to be involved from the standpoint of the
secondary school. Most important among these is the fact
that examinations tend to set up a formal and artificial goal

1 Thorndike, E. L., "The Future of the College Entrance Examination
Board," Educational Review, vol. xxxi, pp. 470-83; Strayer, G. D., and
Thorndike, E. L., Educational Administration, pp. 176-87.

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

329

TABLE CXIII. THE RELATION OF STUDENTS' STANDING ON
ENTRANCE EXAMINATION AND IN THE FRESHMAN YEAR OP
COLLEGE *

On entrance examination* in

Freshman year in college in

Highest
quarter

Next to
highest
quarter

Next to
lowe.it
quarter

Lowest
quarter

2
5
18
25

Highest quarter (50 men)

30
16
3
1

13
17
13

12
16
17

Next to highest quarter (50 men)

Next to lowest quarter (50 men)

Lowest quarter (50 men)

* Cf. Jones, A. L., "Entrance Examinations and College Records," Educational Review,
vol. XLvra, pp. 109-22.

for secondary-school pupils, who look forward to entering
college. The narrow minimum demands for college entrance
tend to become the principal aim of the college-preparatory
work of the secondary school and to influence the other
work of the school in a way unfavorable to high standards
of real attainment. The securing of " points" or " credits"
becomes the aim rather than the attainment of knowledge
or training; the methods of study and teaching are ex-
tensively affected by the possibility of "cramming," and
consistent, steady work day by day receives little en-
couragement when the pupil feels that all will depend on
examinations. The introduction of " comprehensive" exami-
nations will doubtless tend to reduce these evils.

137. The certificating or accrediting system. The period
following the Civil War was noticeably a period of rapid
development in public systems of education and in State
colleges and universities. Where such State systems included
public colleges and universities there existed a situation
favorable to the development of closer articulation between

330 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

the secondary schools and the colleges, and out of such situ-
ations developed the system of admitting students to col-
lege through a certificating or accrediting system on the
basis of satisfactory completion of the high-school course.
One of the first institutions to adopt the certificating system
was the University of Michigan in 1871. In 1873 the State
Board of Education of Indiana and Indiana University
adopted regulations which practically initiated a State-wide
system of accrediting high schools, the administration of
that system being in the hands of the Board of Education.
The movement commended itself to school and college
authorities throughout the country, though most extensively
in the West and Middle West, and by 1895 forty-two State
universities and one hundred and fifty other institutions had
adopted the accrediting system in some form.1 At the pres-
ent time the accrediting system is recognized by nearly all
colleges and universities in the country, the only important
exceptions being a few prominent universities (e.g., Har-
vard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Bryn Mawr) in the East.2
These have adopted certain elements of the certificating
system in combination with the admission examinations.

138. The advantages and disadvantages of the accrediting
system. The prime question regarding the accrediting sys-
tem as a means whereby candidates may be admitted to col-
lege is: Does it admit the fit and exclude the unfit? The
answer to this question in theory is that a judgment based
on all the work done by a boy or girl for four years in the
secondary school would appear to be the most reliable.
Do results in practice accord with this theory? It would
appear that they do. Dearborn compared the school and
college standing of 472 students who entered the Univer-

1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1894-95), vol. 11,
pp. 1171-88.

2 Since this was written the majority of women's colleges of New
England have reverted to the examination system.

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 331

sity of Wisconsin on certificate in 1900 to 1905. He found
that

pupils tend to maintain in the university the same relative rank
which they held in the high school. ... Of the 472 pupils, only five
who stood hi the lowest quarter of the group on entrance, suc-
ceeded in reaching the rank of the first quarter (during the fresh-
man year), and they secured only the lowest grade in that quarter;
similarly, but five of those who entered in the first quarter of this
large group, dropped to the lowest quarter during the freshman
year; and they stood in the highest grade of this quarter. These
results seem remarkable when we contrast them with the notions,
often current, of the extent of reversal which the freshman year of
the university makes in the careers of high school students.1

Dearborn further found a correlation of more than eighty
per cent for the standing of students in the high school and
in the freshman year of the college.2 Numerous other
studies have indicated much the same facts as those sug-
gested by Dearborn's study. Thus Smith secured the data
presented in the Table CXIV, showing the retention in the
college of students belonging to different scholarship groups
in the high school.

Essentially the same results were found by Pettit.3
Clement's investigation discloses the fact that from 75 to 80
per cent of pupils were found in the same tertile of the total
groups in high school and college.4

Even more conclusive were the results of Lincoln's study
of the relative standing of students in the freshman and
sophomore years at Harvard College, in the high school, and
on entrance examinations. His findings indicate that where
the same individuals are concerned the standing of those

1 Dearborn, W. F., The Relative Standing of Pupils in the High School and
in the University, pp. 17, 19.

2 Ibid., p. 21.

* Pettit, W. W., A Comparative Study of New York High School and
Columbia College Grades.

* Clement, J. A., Standardization of the Schools of Kansas, p. 129.

332 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABUS CXIV. RETENTION IN SCHOLABSHIP GROUPS IN THE
COLLEGE OF PUPILS WHO WERE IN DIFFERENT SCHOLARSHIP
GROUPS IN HIGH SCHOOL *

In high-school work

In the college work

Highest
quintile
(per
cent)

Second
quintile
(per
cent)

Third
quintile
(per
cent)

Fourth
quintile
(per
cent)

Lowest
quintile
(per
cent)

Highest quintile

54
25

17
0

17
29
25
25

17
17
20
25
21

4
13
21
33

8
16
17
17

Second quintile

Third quintile

Fourth quintile

Lowest quintile

Table should be read_thus: of pupils who were in the highest quintile in the high school
fifty-four per cent were in the highest quintile in college. Seventeen per cent dropped to the
second quintile, etc.

* Smith, F. O., A Rational Basis for Determining Fitness for College Entrance.

TABLE CXV. CORRELATIONS OF STANDINGS OF STUDENTS m
COLLEGE, IN THE HIGH SCHOOL, AND ON ENTRANCE EXAMI-
NATIONS *

Coefficient
of correla-
tion

Probable
error

Freshman-year college work and high-school work
Freshman-year college work and examinations

.69
.47

.02
.03

Sophomore-year college work and high-school work . . .

.58
.41

.02
.04

Examinations and high-school work

.46

.03

* Lincoln, E. A., "The Relative Standing of Pupils in High School, in Early College, an
on College Entrance Examinations," School and Society, vol. v, pp. 417-20. (Pearson c<
efficient employed.)

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 333

students in their high -school work as measured by the aver-
age grades received therein would have been one and a half
times as reliable an index of their ability to do the work of
the freshman year in college as were their standings on the
entrance examinations. His figures are given in Table CXV.

The special value of these figures is found in the fact that
they permit a direct comparison between the reliability of
high-school grades and entrance-examination grades as
measures of the ability of the same students to do college
work of the freshman and sophomore years.

In the above discussion emphasis has been placed on the
benefits which the college is claimed to derive from the adop-
tion of a certificating system. No less benefits are claimed
for the secondary school. These have been emphasized by
Brown as follows:

It would be hard to overestimate the good already accomplished
by the accrediting system, in spite of all defects. It has given to
communities a means, which had been lacking, of discovering the
deficiencies, and likewise, the excellences of their schools. It has
greatly aided the better principals and teachers in their efforts to
maintain high standards of scholarship. It has quickened the
intellectual life of schools and of whole communities, by the imme-
diate touch of university ideals. In some States, as in Missouri, it
has virtually called into being a new and better and more general
provision for secondary education, within a very few years. In
some States, under its influence, the improvement of the teaching
in such schools has gone forward at an unprecedented rate.1

By no means the least advantage resulting from the adop-
tion of the accrediting system is to be found in the fact
that it has brought into closer and better coordination the
secondary school and the college by removing one of the
greatest barriers between the two institutions.

The accrediting system has its merits. It also has its seri-

1 Brown, E. E., The Making of Our Middle Schools, pp. 376-77. Quoted
with the permission of the publishers, Longmans, Green & Co.

834. PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ous disadvantages. The first of these is found in the fact that
it can never completely meet the needs of the situation. The
very character of the system and the necessity of maintain-
ing standards make it necessary that some schools must be
denied the certificating privilege. Yet some pupils who are
worthy of admission to college will always be found in such
schools. The accrediting system must always select pupils
according to schools: the examination emphasizes selection
by individuals. Hence some form of examination for some
students must always supplement the accrediting system.
The second defect in the accrediting system is found in the
difficulty of its administration, especially with reference to
the supervision or inspection of the work of the secondary
schools — a provision which is necessary if standards are to
be maintained. In such supervision or inspection of the
secondary schools by the colleges it is to be noted that there
is always danger that undue control over the work of the
high schools may be exercised and that many evils now
perpetuated by the dominance of the college over the
secondary school may be continued.

139. Methods of administering the accrediting system.
In general two different methods of administering the cer-
tificating or accrediting system are found, the essential
difference between the two being found in the methods em-
ployed for determining the selection of secondary schools
to which the accrediting privilege should be granted.

(1) The New England College Entrance Certificate Board :
This board was established in 1902 for the purpose of creat-
ing a certificate "clearing house" for the colleges of New
England. In general the standing of the secondary school
and the character of the work done in any given school is
determined by that board on the basis of the accomplish-
ment in college of graduates who are certificated from that
school. According to the success or failure of such certifi-

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 335

cated graduates the certificating privilege is granted or
withdrawn from any given school. The advantage of the
method is found in the simplicity with which it can be
administered. The defects are found in the possible unfair-
ness in determining the character of any school on the basis
of a few scattered representatives of the school and in the
fact that it encourages weak schools to retain their standing
with the certificating board by refusing certificates to any
but the best pupils. Dissatisfaction with the method is not
unknown among the secondary schools of New England and
at least one New England College. It is to be noted also
that the method provides for little cooperation between the
college and the secondary school which may improve the
work of the latter.

(2} The inspection method. In the majority of States in the
country the standing of the secondary school with reference
to the granting or the withholding of the accrediting priv-
ilege is determined on the basis of the character of the work
done in such schools as ascertained from the inspection and
supervision of them by college officers, State officials, or
commission representatives. Such is the method adopted
by numerous State colleges and universities, by State boards
of education, and such general commissions as the Commis-
sion on Accredited Schools of the North Central States
(established in 1901 by the North Central Association of
Colleges and Secondary Schools), etc. The merits of the
inspection system are found in the close relations which
they have developed in such States between colleges and
secondary schools, the intimate acquaintance with problems
of public secondary education gained by college representa-
tives, the upbuilding influence of the college on the school,
and the success of the method in determining the fitness
of graduates for college work. The defects of the method
are those involved in the difficulties of providing effective

336 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

inspection and supervision in some territories and the amount
of administrative ' machinery required effectively to carry
out the plan. These difficulties are great. Nevertheless,
they have been met with satisfactory results in general, par-
ticularly in the Middle West, and with improved organiza-
tion and administration the difficulties inherent in the plan
should not prove unsurmountable.

In this connection two suggested schemes are worthy of
mention. Both arise out of the operation of existing systems
in cases where the college and the secondary school are geo-
graphically distant. The first is that suggested by Thorn-
dike, who recommended in 1906 that the College Entrance
Examination Board assume the added function of a clearing-
house for certificates, the accrediting being based on the
actual success in college of the students endorsed by each
secondary school.1 The advantages of such a plan are
obvious, but no action has ever been taken. The second
suggestion is that of Henderson, who recommended that the
National Association of State Universities appoint a Com-
mission to control the matter of accrediting.2 Previously,
Broome had suggested that desirable conditions for the wide
use of the accrediting system could come only with the exist-
ence of a national board of inspectors for secondary schools.3
Meanwhile, the difficulty of a college determining the sta-
tus of any secondary school situated at a distance has been
somewhat relieved by the publication of lists of accredited
schools prepared from lists of various independent accred-
iting bodies.4

1 Strayer, G. D., and Thorndike, E. L., Educational Administration, pp.
176-87.

8 Henderson, J. L., Admission to College by Certificate, pp. 165-66.

3 Broome, E. C., op. cit., p. 125.

* Published at intervals by the Bureau of Education.

KELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 337

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. To what extend have the functions of the college and university changed
within the past half-century or so? How have those changes affected
the work of the secondary school and its relation to higher institutions?

2. Compare the articulation of the secondary school and college 6r univer-
sity in Germany, France, England, and America.

3. To what extent do the curricula of the public secondary school and the
college overlap?

4. Compare the articulation of the public secondary school and the State
college or university with the articulation of the public secondary
school and the private college or university.

5. Compare the proportion of high-school graduates going to college in
States where the leading college is public and in States where the lead-
ing college or colleges are private. Compare also the high school popu-
lations in those States. (Cf . Report of the United States Commissioner of
Education (1914), vol. n, pp. 416, 415, 411.)

6. Study the historical development of college admission requirements in
English, mathematics, or foreign languages.

7. Compare the college entrance requirements of: (a) Harvard, Princeton,
Yale, Columbia; (6) the University of Chicago, the University of
Michigan, the University of California, Amherst College. (Cf. Kings-
ley, C. D., reference in following bibliography.)

8. Study the requirements for entrance to public normal schools. What
relation do they have to the public secondary school?

9. Compare more in detail the advantages and defects of the examination
system and the accrediting system of admission to college, with special
reference to their effect on the public secondary school.

10. Compare the certificating systems of the Commission on Accredited
Schools of the North Central States and of the New England College
Entrance Certificating Board, with special reference to their effect on
the public secondary school.

11. What are the merits and demerits of the junior college?

12. For any given secondary school or group of secondary schools compare
the relative standing in school and college of its graduates.

SELECTED REFERENCES

NOTE: The literature dealing with the relation between secondary edu~
cation and higher education is so voluminous that any extended bibliog-
raphy is here impossible. Hence there are included below such references
only as (a) represent somewhat comprehensive treatments of the field;
(b) the carefully considered reports of various organizations, committees,
departments of education, etc. ; (c) special articles dealing with most recent
phases of the topic; (d) articles and reports dealing with actual experiments
and investigations.

338 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

I. General treatment:

Broome, E. C., A Historical and Critical Discussion of College En-
trance Requirements.

Hollister, H. A., High School Administration, chap. xm.

Kingsley, C. D., The Relation of the High Schools to Higher Educt
tional Institutions.

Mooney, W. B., "The Relation of Secondary Schools to Higher
Schools in the United States," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xxui,
pp. 387-^-16.
II. Reports of committees, organizations, etc.:

National Education Association, Report of Committee on College
Entrance Requirements, Proceedings (1899), pp. 632-817. Also
published separately by the Association.

National Education Association, Report of the Committee of Ten on
Secondary School Studies, published separately by the Bureau of
Education and also by the American Book Company.

National Education Association, Report of the Committee on the
Articulation of High School and College, Proceedings of the Associ-
ation (1911), pp. 559-37. Also published, pp. 97-105 of Bulletin
(1913) no. 7 of the Bureau of Education.

National Education Association, Report of Committee on Economy of
Time in Education, Proceedings (1914), pp. 206-22. Also published
separately in Bulletin (1913) no. 38, of the Bureau of Education.

Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Reports,
1906-, especially vol. iv. (1909) and vol. v (1910).

College Entrance Examination Board, Reports of the Secretary.

New England College Entrance Certificate Board, Report of the Sec-
retary.

Commission on Accredited Schools of the North Central States,

Reports.
Ill Special articles:

Angell, J. R., "The Junior College Movement in High Schools,"
School Review, vol. xxin, pp. 289-302.

California, State Board of Education, Report of the Commissioner of
Secondary Schools (1914), pp. 20-23 ("Junior Colleges in Cali-
fornia").

Gray, A. A., "The Junior College in California," School Review,
vol. xxin, pp. 465-73.

Henderson, J. L., Admission to College by Certificate.

Holland, E. O., Pennsylvania State Normal Schools and Public
School System.

Lange, A. F., "A Junior College Department of Civic Education,"
School and Society, vol. n, pp. 442-48.

McLane, C. L., "The Junior College, or Upward Extension of the
High School," School Review, vol. xxi, pp. 161-70.

RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 339

IV. Special studies and investigations:

Bureau of Education Bulletins, Accredited Secondary Schools in the
United States (1913), no. 29; (1915), no. 7; (1916), no. 20.

Burritt, B. B., The Professional Distribution of College and University
Graduates, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1912) no. 19.

Clement, J. A., Standardization of the Schools of Kansas, Doctor
Dissertation, University of Chicago. (High-school and college
standings.)

Dearborn, W. F., The Relative Standing of Pupils in the High School
and in the University, Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin no.
312.

Hollingworth, H. L., Vocational Psychology, chap. vm.

Inglis, A. J., "High School Graduates and Preparation for Higher
Institutions," School and Society, vol. i, pp. 932-34.

Inglis, A. J., "The Distribution of Pupils in the Public High
Schools," Educational Review, vol. XLVI, pp. 344-50.

Jones, A. L., "Entrance Examinations and College Records: A
Study in Correlation," Educational Review, vol. XLVUI, pp. 109-22.

Kellicott, W. E., " College Entrance Requirements and College
Standards," School and Society, vol. n, pp. 29-36.

Kelly, F. J., Teachers' Marks: Their Variability and Standardization,
especially pp. 11-84.

Kingsley, C. D., College Entrance Requirements, Bureau of Educa-
tion Bulletin (1913) no. 7.

Lincoln, E. A., "The Relative Standing of Pupils hi High School,
in Early College, and on College Entrance Examination,"
School and Society, vol. v, pp. 417-420.

North Central Association (of Colleges and Secondary Schools),
A Study of the Colleges and High Schools in, Bureau of Education,
Bulletin (1915) no. 6.

Pittinger, B. F., " The Efficiency of College Students as Condi-
tioned by Age at Entrance and Size of High School," Sixteenth
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education,
part ii.

Smith, F. O., A Rational Basis for Determining Fitness for College
Entrance, University of Iowa, Studies in Education, vol. i, no. 3.

Starch, D., Educational Measurement, chap. u. Cf. also Science, vol.
xxxviii, pp. 630-36.

Thorndike, E. L., "The Future of the College Entrance Examina-
tion Board," Educational Review, vol. xxxi, pp. 470-83. Also in
Strayer, G. D., and Thorndike, E. L., Educational Administration,
pp. 176-87.

Extended bibliography: Walkley, R. L., Bibliography of the Relation
of Secondary Education to Higher Education, Bureau of Education,
Bulletin (1914) no. 32.

CHAPTER IX

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES DETERMINING SECONDARY
EDUCATION

140. Some underlying assumptions. Social theory must
always furnish the basis whereon are established conceptions
of the functions which education should perform. The social
theory underlying the considerations adduced in this chap-
ter involves certain assumptions the substantiation of which
cannot be attempted here. Among those assumptions the
more fundamental are the following.

(1) Society is to be conceived as in evolutionary process.
In that process are involved the two factors of integration
and differentiation, the former working toward social co-
hesion and solidarity, the latter working toward variation
and modification.

(2) There is an essential congruity of interest between the
individual and society. The possibility of the development
of the individual is found in his participation in social activ-
ities and in the social consciousness. The possibility of the
development of society is found in the development of
social personalities in individuals.

(3) The school is to be considered as a social institution
or agency maintained by society for the purpose of assisting
in the maintenance of its own stability and in the direction
of its own progress.

141. Secondary education as a social institution. If the
school is to be looked on as an institution established, main-
tained, and controlled by society for the purpose of maintain-
ing its own stability and determining the direction of its own
progress, secondary education, as a part (and as a part only)

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 341

of a general system of education, must be conceived as de-
termined fundamentally by its functions as a social agency.
Looked at from this point of view secondary education
involves a number of important social principles some of
which may be formulated here and considered further in
following sections.

(1) The character and purposes of secondary education
at any time and in any society must conform to the dom-
inant ideals and to the form of social organization of that
society.

(2) The dynamic character of the social process requires
the constant readjustment of secondary education to the
changing demands of society.

(3) The nature of social evolution involves the two sup-
plementary factors of integration and differentiation, both
of which must be recognized properly in secondary educa-
tion.

(4) Whenever any other social institution fails to provide
forms of education socially desirable the school should
assume responsibility for those forms of education as far
as may be possible. Whenever such forms of education are
appropriate to the age and grade of secondary education,
the secondary school should assume responsibility for them.
Conversely, whenever other social agencies provide ade-
quately for forms of education socially desirable the school
should not attempt to assume responsibility for them.

142. Social ideals and social organization. In discussing
the historical development of secondary education the point
was emphasized that the efficiency of the secondary school
is to be measured in terms of the degree in which it conforms
and contributes to the dominant social ideals and form of
social organization at any particular time. In discussing
systems of secondary education in different countries the
point was emphasized that the efficiency of the secondary

342 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

school is to be measured according to the dominant social
ideals and the form of social organization peculiar to each
country. In the present section the principles of education
involved may be considered with special reference to the
social ideals and social organization of the American Democ-
racy.

To state that the American secondary school should con-
form to the democratic ideals and the democratic organiza-
tion of Amercan society is to state a platitude. The impli-
cations of such a statement, however, are not always clearly
perceived and may bear further consideration. Three im-
portant implications invite attention.

(1) Efficient membership in American society demands at
least three qualifications: (a) an ability effectively to execute
the formal and informal duties of citizenship and carry the
burden of political responsibility; (6) an ability to produce
and labor sufficiently to carry one's own economic load;
(c) an ability to utilize one's leisure time and act in an in-
dividual capacity without interfering with the interests of
others or of society at large. In certain societies where
other social ideals are dominant it is possible for many of the
privileges and responsibilities of citizenship to be preroga-
tives of special groups. In some forms of society it is possi-
ble for economic production to rest principally on certain
groups. In certain forms of society opportunities for the
enjoyment of leisure are open to different groups in degrees
determined by social ideals which greatly limit certain indi-
viduals or groups. In the American democracy the three
forms of activity must be considered as important for every
citizen in so far as his individual capacity and circumstances
permit. It follows, therefore, not only that educational
opportunity, including secondary education, should be uni-
versal in America, but also that these three phases of activity
must be conceived as necessary parts of the education due

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 343

every individual and that in the secondary school each of
the three phases should receive attention in due proportion.
Failure to recognize this principle in the past has led to
over-emphasis on certain phases of secondary education and
the comparative neglect of others. This is particularly no-
ticeable in the comparative neglect until* recently of the
preparation of the worker in the American secondary school.
Over-emphasis in the other direction for some pupils is a
not impossible tendency in some quarters at the present
time.

(2) It must be recognized that in American society each
individual must be not merely a law-abiding citizen but also
to some extent a law-making citizen. It must further be
recognized that the minimum level of general intelligence
necessary in any society must depend on the amount of
privilege conferred on the individual and the amount of
responsibility placed on him. In a society where for the
majority of individuals the great necessity is conformance
to imposed demands, a much lower level of general intelli-
gence is required than in a society where the individual must
not only conform to social demands but also determine in
part what those demands shall be. Further, it must be
recognized that with the constantly growing complexity of
modern social and economic life the amount of intelligence
and training necessary to meet its privileges and responsi-
bilities is much greater than at any former time. An educa-
tion which was adequate for the needs of a simpler social
organization cannot be adequate for the needs of a more
complex society. Consequently it has become a serious
problem in this country whether steps should not be taken
to provide that a larger proportion of prospective members
of American society should receive the benefits of education
beyond the elementary school. The increased privileges
and responsibilities granted to and demanded of the indi-

344 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

vidual in American society cannot be provided for by a sys-
tem which gives two thirds of the citizens not more than an
elementary education. The complicated social problems of
modern civic and industrial life and of individual conduct
cannot be understood and intelligently attacked by a peo-
ple, two thirds of whom have received elementary instruc-
tion only and of which on the average individuals have re-
ceived much less than one thousand days of schooling each.
Unless the average amount of education received can be
markedly increased the further development of American
democracy must be seriously conditioned if not actually
imperiled. The problem is one affecting most secondary
education in the public schools.

(3) The participation of all citizens in the direction and
control of all social institutions of a public nature includes
a participation hi the direction and control of the school as
well as of other institutions. The agency on which democ-
racy must most depend is one which democracy must itself
determine and control. Even more than in most societies
the American secondary school must conform to social ideals
and the form of social organization.

143. Social evolution and educational adjustment. It is
an obvious fact that as time passes society changes and the
demands of the social organization are more or less modified.
If it be recognized that the process of the development of
social organization is evolutionary and that secondary edu-
cation must conform to the dominant social ideals and form
of social organization, we must conceive that secondary edu-
cation must constantly be readapted to meet the changing
needs of the society which it serves. Commonly such
changes in social ideals and in the form of social organiza-
tion as demand changes in secondary education develop
gradually and consequently involve no great reorganiza-
tion of secondary education at any one time if the latter is

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 345

gradually modified to meet the gradual changes in society.
Institutions, however, and secondary education no less than
any other institution, once firmly established, tend con-
stantly to become more and more conservative and resist-
ent of change — a characteristic which is a safeguard and
at the same time a defect. Hence it is that important social
changes, readily perceived and evaluated in historical retro-
spect, have seldom been clearly perceived by contemporary
authorities and have seldom been met by appropriate
changes in secondary education. As a result the cumulated
effect of necessary changes in secondary education long de-
ferred has commonly led to extensive reorganization at irreg-
ular intervals. This was the case in the development of the
academy in America when the Latin grammar school was
not adapted to meet contemporary demands of society, in
the .development of the public high school, and is to be
observed in the present demand for the reorganization of
secondary education calling for radical changes to meet the
accumulated evils of existing schools.

No less important than the factor of absolute change in
social ideals and social organization is the factor of the rate
of change therein involved. The rate of development in
most lines of social activity has been much more rapid
within the past half-century or so than at any correspond-
ing period of the past. Likewise development had been
much more rapid in this country than in most others. At
the present time in this country the rate of change in all
phases of our social organization is rapid, and apparently
the rate of change is likely to be rapid for some time to
come. The recent tendencies in social development indicate
clearly that present conditions will in all probability change
in important ways within the life of the generation which is
at present being prepared for membership in our society.
There is a sense in which it is true that the educational proc-

346 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ess must be at least a generation behind the stage of society
for which it is designed to prepare. To reduce that discrep-
ancy as much as possible must be involved in any scheme
for adapting secondary education to social needs. It requires
but a slight examination to note that the activities of the
present day call for some knowledges and skills that could
not have been foreseen by those responsible for secondary
education ten, fifteen, or twenty years ago. In the field of
civic duties are such factors as the initiative and ref-
erendum, the recall of public officials, commission govern-
ment, direct primaries, governmental-industrial relation-
ships, female suffrage, and a multitude of other civic
duties and civic problems specific preparation for which
could not have been afforded in the secondary school for
those who are now called upon to meet them. In the field
of industry a multitude of new processes and new activi-
ties have developed within the past decade or so which the
secondary school could not have provided for even if it
had turned its attention to vocational education exten-
sively. In the field of individual activity new opportuni-
ties for the individual's enjoyment have opened up within
recent years for which the secondary education of fifteen
years ago could not have established standards of conduct
except in the most general way. We may be just as sure that
equally important and extensive changes will face the pupils
in our secondary schools at the present time which we cannot
now foresee and for which, therefore, we can provide no
specific preparation.

The obvious implication of this factor of the rapidity of
change in certain phases of social activities is the recognition
that mere adjustment to existing conditions in society of the
pupils in the secondary school is inadequate — that to this
there must be added the development of a capacity to read-
just to the changed conditions which we may be sure will face

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 347

the pupils after leaving the school, conditions which we can-
not clearly foresee but which we know will hi some respects
differ from existing conditions. Of all elements in secondary
education this is the one most likely to be neglected or mini-
mized. The tendency in that direction is easy to explain.
Mere adjustment to existing conditions is relatively easy,
the path toward it is direct, and the returns immediate and
readily perceived. The development of a capacity to read-
just constantly to the changing conditions of life is relatively
difficult, the path toward it is indirect, and the returns rela-
tively remote and not readily observed. However, the diffi-
culty of attaining and the difficulty of developing a capacity
to readjust cannot justify the neglect of that phase of the
social function of the secondary school.

144. Social integration and differentiation. In any society
there are always two sets of forces at work which determine
the form of social organization, one set of forces tending to
bind together the various parts of society and to unify it, the
other set tending to separate the various parts of society and
to disrupt it. Without the first set of forces in operation there
could be no real society: without the second set of forces
in operation society would be static, non-progressive, and
lacking the possibility of modification. Whatever be one's
views of the form of social evolution the facts must be recog-
nized that social forces are dynamic and that there are always
two factors at work, one determining the essential unity and
continuity of society, the other determining differentiation
and change. The operation of the first factor may be termed
"integration," that of the second factor "differentiation,"
terms borrowed from the field of biological evolution without
necessarily implying any complete analogy between social
and biological evolution.

In the units which go to make up society there are always
elements of homogeneity and elements of heterogeneity.

348 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

On the maintenance of the proper equilibrium between those
elements depend the existence, continuity, and progress of
society and the problem in any society is twofold: (1) to
develop out of the heterogeneous raw material that degree
of homogeneity (like-mindedness) which is necessary for the
permanence of the society; and (2) to provide that the maxi-
mum efficiency may result from individual differences in
capacities, interests, and abilities, as well as from the adap-
tation of individuals to the widely differentiated needs of
society. Between these two needs of society there must
always be a certain amount of antagonism and conflict but
it is an error to conceive that we must choose between them
because of a certain opposition of function. Rather we must
conceive that they are both necessary and that their rela-
tion is supplemental far more than antagonistic. In any
society there is need of a certain amount of unity of thought,
of feeling, of ideals, of standards, of conduct. Such unity is
more necessary in a democracy such as ours than in any
other society. But it is also true that individual differences
and the differentiated needs of modern society demand
recognition. Hence the factors of integration and of differ-
entiation are both important and neither can be neglected
without incurring the gravest social dangers. Failure to pro-
vide for the factor of differentiation has for centuries been
noteworthy in the social organization and in education.
Failure to provide properly for the factor of integration is
a very real possibility in social, economic, and educational
theory and practice at present.

The implication of this principle for education, and
especially for secondary education, is clear. As an efficient
social institution secondary education must recognize the
necessity of provision for training which shall serve to make
for integration, training which shall allow for the individual
differences among the pupils and the differentiated needs of

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 349

society, training in which the supplementary relation of the
two factors is observed.

145. Changes in other social institutions. All the major
activities of society and the greater part of the minor activ-
ities of society are organized into institutions which may be
considered (a) as embodying the recognized purposes of
society in the various fields of human activity, (6) as instru-
ments of social control, and (c) as media for the communi-
cation and transmission of group experience. Among such
institutions, of major importance are those centering around
the home, the community life, the State, the Church, the
vocation, and the school. Since they represent phases of
the social purpose and of the social process, and since the
social process is evolutionary, we must conceive of these
institutions as susceptible of change with time and as them-
selves evolutionary. Hence we must expect to find insti-
tutions undergoing modification as time progresses, at times
losing certain functions, at times adding new functions, at
times changing the specific character and direction of their
activities. Such changes are manifest in the history of every
institution and the history of education indicates that the
school as a formal agency of education originated and devel-
oped by assuming functions and activities which had pre-
viously belonged to other institutions.

Recognizing the fact that institutions change it is com-
monly held that when existing institutions afford socially
adequate training in desirable social activities, the school
as the formal agency of education should not assume the
responsibility for such training, the reason for this being
found in the fact that the direct education coming through
actual participation in the activities of society is far more
valuable than the indirect education provided by the school
as a preparation rather than a form of actual participation.
Conversely, it is commonly held that when any other social

350 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

institution fails to provide or ceases to provide desirable
forms of training adequately for the social demands, such
training must be taken over by the institution specially de-
signed for formal education — the school.

The implication of this principle for education is twofold
— that the school must be expected to assume certain new
functions as other institutions cease to meet them, and that,
in some cases at least, the school must be brought into closer
relation with other institutions for the proper coordination
of functions of all educational institutions, formal and in-
formal, and for the proper division of social responsibility.
This must apply to secondary education as well as to other
divisions of education, and it applies with special force at the
present time. Within recent years important changes have
taken place in the home, in the community life, in the State,
in the Church, in the vocation, and in other social institu-
tions, which have imposed on secondary education in the
school many functions formerly exercised by one or more
of those institutions. Those changes and their effects on
secondary education are so important that they deserve
more extended consideration in the following sections.

146. Changes in the home and family life. To some ex-
tent all other social institutions may be conceived as having
developed out of the home and family as the fundamental
social unit. Thus the State probably had its inception in the
development of the family with its increasing number of
members, through the clan and groups united by bonds of
blood relationship and marriage. Thus religion and the
church developed through the various forms of animistic,
totemistic, and other forms of belief, in some cases prima-
rily through the worship of common ancestors, the family
or clan head being also the spiritual head of the social group.
Thus the vocation was determined by the activities and
needs of the family or clan. In general it is at least a tenable

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 351

theory that the source of all institutional activities and func-
tions is to be found in the activities and functions of the
fundamental social group — the family.

The history of the school as a social institution shows
clearly that its inception and its development can be traced
to the assumption of activities and functions taken either
from the home directly or from the home indirectly through
other social institutions which have previously taken over
activities and functions formerly belonging to the home.
Inevitable changes occur from time to time in the home.
In such cases three lines of change may be possible: com-
pensating changes may be made in the home itself; the
change in the home may be compensated by a change in
some other institution; the change in the home may be com-
pensated in the institution which society has created for that
special purpose, i.e., in the school. Sooner or later the ma-
jority of such changes affect the school.

To trace even all the important changes in the school
which were due to changes in the activities and functions of
the home would be impossible here. Only some of the more
important and somewhat recent of such changes can be here
considered — such changes as apparently affect the present
character of secondary education. These may be conven-
iently grouped under two heads: those affecting problems of
moral-social education; and those affecting vocational edu-
cation. In addition, however, we may consider certain
changes in the relation between the home and the school.

(1) Changes affecting moral-social education: Within the
past three or four generations the development of the home
as an informal institution of education has been marked by
important changes in the stimuli and opportunities for
moral-social education, changes which have on the whole
tended to lessen the influence of the home as an educational
agency. The majority of those changes center around the

352 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

lessening of the home or family solidarity. This is manifest
in the lessening interdependence of members of the family;
in the lessened amount of responsibility of the children of
the family, accompanied in many cases by a greatly in-
creased amount of privilege; in the withdrawal of the father,
and sometimes the mother, from home occupations to occu-
pations in the factory; in the effects of increased urbaniza-
tion where the activities of the family are less unified; in
the decreased religious atmosphere in the home; in the
reconstruction. of family relations in the case of foreign-born
parents and native-born children; in the increase of divorce;
and in a multitude of other ways. Scarcely two generations
ago the social stimuli and the opportunities — nay, more, the
necessities — of moral-social education in the home were
far greater along important lines than is the case to-day, and
the changes are due, not altogether to a decreased sense of
responsibility on the part of parents, but to forces over
which they have had little or no control. They have been
necessary results of powerful social and economic forces at
work throughout society. Thus less than half a century ago
the " typical " family in America lived in a small town or on
the farm, the occupations of the fathers were largely on the
farm or in local industries, the occupations of women were
almost exclusively in the home, and a multitude of house-
hold tasks and home or farm " chores " provided excellent
opportunity for the participation of children hi the activi-
ties of the family. Since that time the tendency has been
strongly in the direction of home conditions in the city, the
factory system has removed most of occupational stimuli
from the home, women have entered industries and occu-
pations never thought of a half -century ago, and modern
labor-saving devices have removed the majority of home
activities for boys and greatly lessened those for girls. The
result has been that the sense of social responsibility devel-

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 353

oped by necessary participation in the activities of the fam-
ily in former times has not been developed in the children
of the family within recent years, individual privileges have
been extended with the increase of leisure and the increase o)
opportunities for utilizing that leisure, parents and children
spend less and less of their time in close association with a
resulting loss of intimate relation, and the primary agency
for the development of ideals and habits of social duties and
responsibilities has lost opportunities for social training, that
it can never fully recover. To this we may add the fact that
parents themselves not well educated in some respects find
greater and greater difficulty in preparing their children for
the needs of modern life, a fact which is particularly perti-
nent in the cases of large numbers of foreign-born parents.

Obviously the burden thrown on the school by the de-
creased influence of the home in these respects affects all
divisions of education, including secondary education. It
is in part the basis of the present demand for increased
attention to the moral and social education of boys and
girls, a demand which cannot be neglected without distinct
loss to our efficiency as a nation.

(3) Changes affecting vocational education : With respect
to stimuli and opportunities for vocational education no less
important changes have taken place in the development of
the home and family life within the past three or four gener-
ations, those changes constantly tending to decrease the
amount of vocational stimuli and opportunity offered in
that institution. To illustrate the changes which have taken
place in this connection and in connection, with the preced-
ing paragraphs we 'cannot, perhaps, do better than quote
from Dewey's description made a decade ago:

Back of the factory system lies the household and neighborhood
system. Those of us who are here to-day need to go back only one,
two, or at most three generations, to find a time when the house-

hold was practically the center in which were carried on all the
typical forms of industrial occupation. The clothing worn was for
the most part not only made in the house, but the members of the
household were usually familiar with the shearing of the sheep, the
carding and spinning of the wool, and the plying of the loom. In-
stead of pressing a button and flooding the house with electric
light, the whole process of getting illumination was followed hi its
toilsome length, from the killing of the animal and the trying of
Fat, to the making of wicks and dipping of candles. The supply of
flour, of lumber, of foods, of building materials, of household fur-
niture, even of metal ware, of nails, hinges, hammers, etc., was in
the immediate neighborhood, in shops which were constantly open
to inspection and often centers of neighborhood congregation. The
entire industrial process stood revealed, from the production on
the farm of raw materials, till the finished article was actually put
to use. Not only this but practically every member of the house-
hold had his own share in the work. The children, as they gained
in strength and capacity, were gradually initiated into the myste-
ries of the several processes. It was a matter of immediate concern,
even to the point of actual participation.

We cannot overlook the factors of discipline and of character-
building involved in this: training in habits of order and industry,
and in the idea of responsibility, of obligation to do something, to
produce something, in the world. There was always something
which really needed to be done, and a real necessity that each
member of the household should do his own part faithfully and in
cooperation with others. Personalities which became effective in
action were bred and tested in the medium of action. Again, we
cannot overlook the importance for educational purposes of the
close and intimate acquaintance got with nature at first hand, with
real things and materials, with the actual processes of their manip-
ulation, and the knowledge of their social necessities and uses. In
all this there was continual training of observation, of ingenuity,
constructive imagination, of logical thought, and of the sense of
reality acquired through first-hand contact with actualities. The
educative force of the domestic spinning and weaving, of the saw-
mill, the grist-mill, the cooper shop, and the blacksmith forge,
were continuously operative.1

1 Dewey, J., The School and Society, pp. 22-24. Quoted with the per-
mission of the publishers, University of Chicago Press.

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 355

Many factors have combined to remove such vocational
stimuli and opportunities from the home: (a) the develop-
ment of organized industry and the factory system; (6) the
application in the home of labor-saving devices; (c) the
development of more complicated and scientific methods
and processes in industry (e.g., scientific methods in farm-
ing), for which the ordinary activities of the home and com-
munity can provide but inadequate training; (d) the less-
ened self -sufficiency of the home for its own needs; (e) the
tendency toward urbanization introducing in some ways a
more simplified, in other ways a more complicated We;
(/) the decrease of " trade heredity " from father to son, or
even from mother to daughter.

The lessened influence of the home in vocational training
calls for increased attention to that form of education either
in the school or in some other social institution. It will be
shown in a later section that industry and the vocation itself
does not adequately provide vocational training. The only
other available institution for that purpose is the school.
It is obvious that the great burden of this vocational train-
ing must be provided in the secondary division of the system
of education.

(3} Changes in the relation between the home and the school:
Not only is it true that changes in the home itself have
imposed responsibilities on the secondary school but it is
also true that the relation between the two institutions has
changed to such an extent that the school must assume cer-
tain responsibilities before appropriate to the home. This
arises from the fact that the school has preempted a much
greater amount of the time of the child, thus necessarily
limiting the amount of education which the home can afford.
This is true in two respects. While the length of the school
day has not noticeably, if at all, been increased (it has some-
times worked in quite the opposite direction), the control

of the pupils' time through the supervision of extra-curricula
activities and home study has markedly increased. Like-
wise the number of individuals involved has very decidedly
increased within the past two decades with great resultant
increase in the aggregate of the control of the time of the
youth in the secondary school. Thus not only does the home
commonly fail to afford opportunity for education to the
extent it did a generation or two ago, but, even were the
desirable educational stimuli and opportunities to be found
in the home, their effectiveness would be reduced because
of the lessened contact with the child. The school which has
itself reduced the opportunity for education in the home
must meet its resulting responsibilities.

To these considerations may be added the fact that the
trend of the development of community life has been such
as to destroy to some extent the intimate contact which
formerly existed between the home and the school. Hence
the development of numerous movements such as parent-
teacher associations and the high-school-as-the-civic-center
movement to promote a closer cooperation between the two
institutions.

147. Changes in community life. Closely allied to
changes in the home and family life affecting education are
changes in the community life which have within the past
few generations affected the character of secondary educa-
tion in important ways. Without attempting to draw any
sharp dividing line between family life and community life
on the one hand and between community life and the more
extended functions of the State and society as a whole on
the other hand, we may gain a knowledge of some forces
affecting education by noting certain changes in community
life. Among the most important changes which have oc-
curred within recent times we may consider the following:
the change from the small community in the country to the

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES

357

city community; the increasing heterogeneity of population
in communities; the mobility of labor and population.

(1) Changes tending toward urbanization: One of the most
noticeable and one of the most important social changes
which have taken place in this country within the past half-
century is the increased tendency for the population to con-
gregate in the cities and to withdraw from the rural com-
munities. This tendency is clearly seen from the figures
presented in the following table.

TABLE CXVI. THE DISTRIBUTION OF URBAN AND RURAL POPU-
LATION IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1880, 1890, 1900, 1910 *

181

19(

19,

Division of the country

Urban
(per
cent)

Rural
(per
cent)

Urban
(per
cent)

Rural
(per
cent)

Urban
(per
cent)

Rural
(per
cent)

Urban
(per
cent)

Rural
(per
cent)

New England . .

68 7

31 3

75.8

24 2

79 9

20 1

83 3

16 7

Middle Atlantic

49.9

50.1

57.7

42.3

65.2

24.8

71.0

29 0

East North Central

27.5

72.5

37.8

62.2

45 2

54.8

52 7

47 3

West North Central

18.1

81.9

25.8

74.2

28.5

71.5

33 3

66 7

South Atlantic

15.1

84.9

19.5

80.5

21.4

78.6

25 4

74 6

East South Central

8.4

91.6

12.7

87.3

15.0

85.0

18.7

81 3

West South Central

12.2

87.8

15.1

84.9

16.2

83.8

22 3

77 7

23.6

76.4

29.3

70.7

32.3

67.7

36.0

64 0

36.2

63.8

42.5

57.5

46.4

53.6

56.8

43.2

UNITED STATES

29.5

70.5

36.1

63.9

40.5

59.5

46.3

53 7

* Report of the Thirteenth Census (1910), vol. i, p. 57. Urban communities include all over
2500 population: rural communities include all others.

What are the implications of such conditions for educa-
tion? The answer to this question calls for the direction of
our views along two different lines. In the first place, it is a
pertinent theory that the failure 'of the school to meet com-
munity needs has itself contributed toward present condi-
tions which are not altogether desirable, through its failure
to adapt itself to the needs of the smaller community and by
providing the sort of an education which has tended to drive
country children to the cities instead of providing an educa-

358 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

tion suited to the needs of rural life. In so far as such a the-
ory is valid (and it is valid within limits only) the implica-
tion for education is an extended adaptation of the character
of school education to the diversified needs of different com-
munities.

In the second place, it must be recognized that the ten-
dency toward greater urbanization has resulted in the loss of
important forms of social-civic, vocational, cultural, and
physical education previously provided informally by com-
munity life, forms of education which must now be taken
over in part at least by the school. Here we may note par-
ticularly the greatly lessened opportunities for social and
physical development through play in the modern city as
compared with opportunities afforded in the rural com-
munity or small town, the loss of rather direct and intimate
contact with all the activities of civic agencies, the loss of
close contact with industrial activities, the loss of the in-
fluence of a sense of social and individual responsibility
where one's every act is known by the entire community,
and the diminished sense of belonging to a definite social
unit.

(2) The increasing heterogeneity of population in commun-
ities : As is the case for the country as a whole so it is the
case for communities (especially for towns and cities) that
the population has tended within the past few generations
to become more and more heterogeneous, and consequently
the unity of life in communities has constantly diminished.
Hence it is that the general stimuli of life in any given com-
munity have tended to become less and less adequate for
the social-civic education of the children of that community
with the result that a further responsibility for increased
attention to that form of education has been imposed on the
school. Where this heterogeneity of population has been
accompanied by an increased diversity of industries, as is

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES

359.

not infrequently the case, further implications for vocational
education in the school are found.

(3) The mobility of labor and population : Important for
questions of social-civic and vocational education is the fact
that labor and population has tended on the whole to be-
come more mobile. Increased facilities for transportation
and the extension of the labor market have made a change
of residence from one community to another much more
common than formerly. At the same time the breakdown of
the older apprentice system has operated to reduce the ten-
dency of the workman to remain in any one community.
Thus, in the year 1912-13, from a study of the fathers of
22,027 boys thirteen years of age in the schools of sev-
enty-eight American city school systems, Ayres secured the
data presented in the following table.

TABLE CXVH. BIRTHPLACES OF BOYS AND THEIR FATHERS
IN SEVENTY-EIGHT CITIES *

Birthplace

Boys

Fathers

Number

Per cent

Number

Percent

Same city

12,699
4,233
3,069
2,026

58
19
14
9

3,601
5,349
4,364
8,713

16
24
20
40

Same State but not same city
Other State in United States

Foreign country . .

Total

22,027

100

22,027

100

* Ayres, L. P., Some Conditions affecting Problems of Industrial Education in Seventy-eight
American School Systems, Bulletin E. 135 of the Russell Sage Foundation, p. 7.

The data giving the birthplaces of the boys and their fathers
show that only about one father in six is now living in the city of
his birth and that among the boys only a few more than one-half
are now living where they were born. These facts are significant
because it is often urged that the schools should develop courses

360 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

of industrial education that will directly prepare the children to
enter local industries. But if present conditions maintain in the
future the great majority of adults are not going to work in the
same communities in which they received their schooling.

It is clear that the conditions illustrated by Ayres's inves-
tigation are significant not merely for problems of vocational
education but also for other forms of education.

148. Changes in the Church and religion. The Church
has always been one of the most conservative of social insti-
tutions. As a result of that conservatism such changes as
have taken place have meant: (a) a splitting-off of new
denominations or sects from the parent institution; (6) a
decrease or increase in the number of active adherents of the
Church or of various denominations; (c) an increase or de-
crease in the influence which the Church and its religion
exercised over its adherents. Changes along these lines have
not been without importance for education in this country
within the past few generations, though their extent is very
difficult to determine.

The World Almanac for 1917 lists forty-nine different
denominations with one hundred and seventy-one different
sects in the United States. How far the Church and religion
have lost unity through the development of numerous de-
nominations and sects it is impossible to estimate. This
much, however, is sure, that the power of the Church as an
integrating factor in American society has diminished in
some degree even within the past few decades and in some
communities it must be recognized that social unity is seri-
ously imperiled by denominational discord.

Even more difficult to measure is the result of changes in
the number of Church communicants and the real influence
of the Church and its religion over those communicants.
This much appears clear, however, that religion has ceased
to exert the extent of influence which it formerly exerted in

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 361

certain directions for the people of America as a whole.
Instances of such a loss of influence may be found in the
disappearance of family prayers in many homes, the ob-
servance of the Sabbath, the position of the Church as the
community center, the lessened influence of the clergy.
Extension of the activities of the Church in other directions
has by no means recovered the influence which the Church
once had. This has meant a distinct loss to education. If
the loss were one merely of theological and ritualistic educa-
tion it would not be so important. The great loss has been
in moral and social education which have always been closely
associated with religious education, and in the diminished
power of one of the greatest of integrating factors.

The implications for education arising from such changes
in the Church and religion are recognition of the added
responsibility for moral-social education in the school and
recognition of the need for the school to assume added
responsibility for its integrating function.

In this connection it should be noted that acceptance of
the principle that Church and State education must be sepa-
rate hi this country and that religious instruction cannot be
provided hi the public school has had the natural result of
fostering denominational and sectarian schools, a result
which was probably inevitable, but one which, if extended
far, must inevitably lead to a direct conflict of educational
policy.

149. Changes in the vocation. The nineteenth century
was distinctly a period of industrial change if not industrial
revolution in this country as well as for civilized society in
general. Within that period came : (a) the greatly extended
application of science to industry; (6) the substitution of
machinery for hand labor; (c) the substitution of the factory
system for the domestic system of industry; (d) the exten-
sion of industrial competition; (e) the development of organ-

362 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ized labor; (/) the growth of highly specialized processes and
the greater subdivision of labor; (g) the consequent break-
down of the older apprentice system; (h) the entrance of
women into industry; (i) a change, particularly in this coun-
try, in the relative importance of industrial efficiency and
abundant natural resources as determining economic values;
(j) a more intimate relation between government and indus-
try; (k) the development of a tendency toward materialism
in thought and life; (I) the development of an industrial
democracy; (m) the development of labor legislation, espe-
cially as affecting the occupations of women and children,
as affecting the hours and conditions of labor, and as
affecting the age of entrance into industry.

All these and other changes which have taken place within
the past few generations in the field of the vocation may be
grouped on the basis of their educational significance under
one or more of the following main heads : (1) changes in the
amount and character of vocational education provided by
the vocation itself and by the system of industry; (2) changes
hi the requirements of the vocation and the conditions for
entrance; (3) changes in the amount and character of non-
vocational education provided by the vocation and by the
system of industry, especially moral-social education.

(1) Vocational education through the vocation: The dis-
appearance of the older apprentice system which provided
for the vocational education of the boy or girl in and through
the vocation itself, the development of the factory system of
industry which removed the field of industry from the home
and smaller community where the boy and girl came into
more direct and intimate contact with it and which itself
provided a greatly lessened training for those who entered
industry the development of highly subdivided processes in
any given trade which has made it possible and economical
for the individual to become acquainted with a single small

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 363

part only of any total trade or even any total process — all
these and other changes have greatly diminished the amount
of vocational education formerly provided by the vocation
itself and have greatly modified the character of such educa-
tion as is still provided in industry.

(2) Requirements of the vocation and of industry: The
development of industrial competition and its extension to
international competition has created a demand for a higher
degree of industrial efficiency than was ever before neces-
sary. In this country heretofore the abundance of natural
resources has afforded an advantage which in industrial
competition has left a margin permitting wasteful use of
natural resources and a certain amount of industrial ineffi-
ciency. That margin must constantly grow less, and even if
that were not the case, it is probable that the wasteful
methods of the past would not long survive the strenuous
competition of modern industry. Thus industry has in-
creased its demand for higher efficiency, implying better
industrial training at the same time that the vocation itself
and industry has decreased the opportunities which it for-
merly provided for such training.

At the same time practice and legislation have constantly
extended the age at which boys and girls enter on their voca-
tions, thereby reducing the possibility of early vocational
education in industry itself. In particular child-labor laws
and compulsory school-attendance laws have taken the
child out of the environment wherein vocational stimuli
and vocational education were provided. It is imperative
that the school should in some degree provide for equiva-
lent preparation for the vocation.

(<?) The vocation and moral-social education. It is a serious
error to think the changes in the vocation and in industry
are of importance in connection with vocational education
and industrial efficiency alone. Such changes are fully as

364 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

significant in connection with moral-social education, a fact
which is readily recognized when we consider the extensive
development of the relations between labor and capital, the
important part played by organized labor hi industry, in
government, in politics, and in the ordinary conduct of
everyday life, when we consider the effect of the modern
factory system on the individual worker and on home and
community life, and when we consider the relations of pro-
ducer and consumer under existing conditions. The high
ethical standards of artizanship and of industrial responsi-
bility were greatly diminished when the relation between
producer and consumer became less direct, when highly
divided industry came to prevent the individual worker
from seeing the relation of his particular piece of work to
the finished total product as well as the relation of that
complete product to society's needs, and when the relation
between the laborer and the employer became less and less
close.

The implications for education of changes in the vocation
and in industry are perhaps primarily concerned with the
need for recognition of the importance of vocational educa-
tion and direction in the work of the school. By no means
negligible, however, are the implications for social and moral
education.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. Show how differences between secondary education in Germany,
France, England, and America manifest the influence of differences
in dominant social ideals and the form of social organization.

2. Show how social ideals in America changed during the nineteenth
century and how the influence of those changes affected secondary
education.

S. Make as large a list as you can of civic duties and responsibilities at
present required but not required a decade ago. How far did secondary
education of a decade ago prepare for such duties and responsibilities?

4. Compare the opportunities for amusement afforded when you were

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 365

a pupil in the secondary school with those now afforded. How far did
your secondary school education prepare you for the intelligent enjoy-
ment of facilities for amusement? How could it have been bettered?

5. In what ways can a capacity to readjust to the changing conditions of
society be developed in the public secondary school?

6. What are some of the important problems for secondary education
arising out of the factors of integration and differentiation in society?

7. Make a list of all the stimuli and opportunities for social-moral train-
ing formerly found in the home and community life and no longer
afforded by those institutions. Which of those can be partially replaced
by secondary education?

8. Make a list of all the stimuli and opportunities for vocational educa-
tion formerly provided in the home and community life and no longer
afforded by those institutions. Which of those can be partially pro-
vided in the secondary school?

9. Make a list of all the stimuli and opportunities for moral-social educa-
' tion formerly provided by the vocation and industry and no longer

provided by those agencies.

10. Trace the decay of the older apprentice system and consequent de-
mands on secondary education.

11. In what ways has the industrial development tended to require more
extensive education for workers? In what ways has it tended to require
less education?

12. What factors have tended to emphasize the need for more attention
to moral education in the secondary school?

13. What factors have tended to emphasize the need for more attention to
social education in the secondary school?

14. What factors have tended to emphasize the need for more attention
to vocational education in the secondary school?

15. What factors have tended to emphasize the need for more attention to
physical education in the secondary school?

16. What factors have tended to emphasize the need for more attention
to education for the utilization of leisure in the secondary school?

17. What factors have tended to emphasize the need for more attention tc
educational guidance in the secondary school?

SELECTED REFERENCES

Betts, G. H., Social Principles of Education, especially chaps, n-vn, XI.

Carlton, F. F., Education and Industrial Evolution.

Cooley, E. H., Social Organization.

Cubberley, E. P., The Changing Conceptions of Education.

Davenport, E., Education for Efficiency.

Dewey, J., Democracy and Education.

Dewey, J., School and Society, chap. i.

366 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Ellwood, C. A., Sociology and Modern Social Problems, especially chap. xv.
Henderson, E. N., A Text^Book in the Principles of Education, chaps.

n-iv.

Hollister, H. A., The Administration of Education in a Democracy, chap. vi.
Inglis, A. J., "The Socialization of the High School," Teachers Colleg

Record, vol. xvi, no. 3 (May, 1915), pp. 205-16.
King, I., Social Aspects of Education, especially chaps, i, ix-xi.
McVannel, J. A., Outline of a Course in the Philosophy of Education, chaps.

VI, EX, X.

O'Shea, M. V., Social Development and Education.

Smith, W. R., An Introduction to Educational Sociology.

Snedden, D., "Social Aspects of High-School Education," chap, xxi of
Monroe, P. (Editor), Principles of Secondary Education.

Snedden, D., "The High School as a Social Enterprise," chap, n of John-
ston, C. H. (Editor), The Modern High School.

Snedden, D., The Problem of Vocational Education.

Ward, L. F., Dynamic Sociology, chap. xiv.

CHAPTER X

THE AIMS AND FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY
EDUCATION

I. THE AIMS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

150. The aims of secondary education: their basis. The
key to any analysis of aims in education is to be found in an
analysis of the activities of life in which people do or should
engage. The aims of secondary education, therefore, as of
any department of education, must be interpreted in terms
of the activities in which individuals may be expected nor-
mally to participate. Obviously those activities vary in
different societies and at different periods. Obviously also
different individuals and different groups of individuals
engage in various activities in various ways and to varying
degrees. Any complete analysis of the activities in which
different individuals and different groups engage would
involve an examination of all the multitudinous phases of
human life. Such a detailed analysis is, of course, impossi-
ble: if it were possible it would be of questionable value,
since it would deal with individuals whose lives could not
be prophesied. Certain general fields of activity, however,
engage practically all individuals in some way and to some
degree, furnishing fundamental aims for secondary educa-
tion.

151. Three fundamental aims of secondary education.
Three important groups of activities require the participa-
tion of the Individual and establish three fundamental aims
for secondary education, as for all education, in America.
Those three groups of activities are distinguished accord-

368 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ingly as they involve primarily: (1) participation in the
duties of citizenship and in the not-directly economic rela-
tions of cooperative group life; (2) participation in the pro-
duction and distribution of economic utilities; (3) the life
of the individual as a relatively free and independent per-
sonality. Thus the three fundamental aims of secondary
jducatioii are:

(1) The preparation of the individual as a prospective
citizen and cooperating member of society — the
Social-Civic Aim;

(2) The preparation of the individual as a prospective
worker and producer — the Economic- Vocational
Aim;

(3) The preparation of the individual for those activities
which, while primarily involving individual action,
the utilization of leisure, and the development of
personality, are of great importance to society —
the Individualistic- A vocational Aim.

It must be recognized that these three aims are not mu-
tually exclusive, but rather that they are in a high degree
interrelated and interdependent. Taken together they con-
stitute the Social Aim of secondary education in the broad-
est sense of the term. Every individual as a social unit is
at the same time a citizen, a worker, and a relatively inde-
pendent personality. The three phases of his life cannot be
divorced, and in the secondary school preparation for no one
of those phases of life should be neglected.

152. The social-civic aim. The social-civic aim of second-
ary education involves the preparation of individuals for
efficient participation in those activities of society whose
controlling purpose and primary object are desirable forms
of social cooperation, e.g., the interrelated activities of peo-
ple in community life, in making laws, in action according
to laws, in political duties, and in general wherever group

ATMS AND FUNCTION 369

action and the not-directly economic relains between the
individual and the group or between indidual and indi-
vidual are involved. Hence it demands ic development
of knowledge, habits, abilities, and ideals tdch will enable
the individual efficiently to play his part £a social unit in
group activities.

Adequate preparation for and traininj in such social
activities as are involved in the social-civi aim of second-
ary education must include among others aieast the follow-
ing purposes: (1) the development of idea and habits of
conduct; (2) the development of ideals and abits of cooper-
ation; (3) the development of a knowlede of important
social institutions or agencies and their plee in the social
order, together with appropriate ideals, tandards, and
habits; (4) the development of a knowledge^ the civic ac-
tivities involved in community life, togetherrith the related
ideals, standards, and habits; (5) the deelopment of a
knowledge of the major activities of state aid national life,
together with appropriate ideals, standkrls, and habits;

(6) the development of a knowledge of

and duties, together with appropriate ides 13, standards, and
habits; (7) throughout all secondary edication, as far as
may be possible, training in social activit es through actual
participation in the activities of the sclnol itself and the

community; (8) throughout all the devel
conscience or sense of social responsibility

Important in any society, the social-civ
most important in a democracy.

153. The economic-vocational aim.

oitical principles

pment of a social
aim is obviously

The economic-

vocational aim of secondary education involves the prepa-
ration of the individual for efficient participation in those
activities of society whose controlling purpose and primary
object involve economic efficiency. Society makes its de-
mand on every individual to participate in economic activity

370 PRINCIPLES. OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

at least to the extent of "pulling his own load," and economic
efficiency is a necessity of modern life to which each must
contribute his share. So universal a necessity cannot be
neglected by the secondary school unless it can be shown
that other social agencies are equal to the task of such prep-
aration. That other social agencies do not accomplish such
preparation adequately has been indicated in the preced-
ing chapter. T^he responsibility, therefore, falls on the
school and must be recognized in the aims of secondary
education.

As long as pupils receiving the benefits of secondary edu-
cation were drawn from classes whose vocations were almost
entirely the higher professions, involving vocational educa-
tion in higher institutions, the directly vocational aim in the
secondary school was subordinated to other aims except in
so far as preparation for higher institutions might be con-
ceived as involving indirect contribution to a vocational aim.
With the extension of the benefits of secondary education
to the non-professional classes greater importance has neces-
sarily been attached to the economic- vocational aim.

Adequate preparation for and training in such activities
as are involved in the economic- vocational aim of secondary
education must include, as far as may be possible and with
due reference to the different needs of special groups, the
following purposes: (1) the development of the knowledges,
skills, and habits involved in vocational activities; (2) some
knowledge of the principles of economics; (3) some develop-
ment of the ideals, standards, and conditions of the economic
world; (4) the discovery and development of special interests
and aptitudes of different individuals for vocational pursuits;
(5) some vocational guidance; (6) the development of an
understanding of the significance of various vocations to
society; (7) the development of a conception of the relations
between fellow-members of a vocation, between different

AIMS AND FUNCTIONS 371

vocational groups, between employee and employer, be-
tween producer and consumer; (8) some knowledge of in-
dustrial-governmental relations.

The degree in which vocational education and training
may be appropriate for various groups of pupils in the sec-
ondary school obviously must differ. More uniformity is
possible in the attainment of the social-civic aim than in the
economic-vocational aim, since the activities involved hi
the former are more nearly the same for all individuals. The
greater difficulty of attaining the economic-vocational aim
is, however, no justification for its neglect ha the second-
ary school.

154. The individualistic-avocational aim.1 The individ-
ualistic-avocational aim of secondary education involves the
preparation of the individual for those activities of life whose
primary object and controlling purpose are personal develop-
ment and personal happiness through the worthy use of
leisure. The social-civic and the economic-vocational aims
of education are directly and constructively social. Their
contributions to social well-being and to social progress are
obvious. On the other hand, the individualistic-avoca-
tional aim of education is sometimes falsely conceived to be
non-social. This is a serious error arising hi large part from
the fact that its contributions to social well-being and to
social progress are, hi a sense, indirect and to some extent
negative. For centuries academic asceticism has frowned
upon any kind of education which frankly or in disguised
form favored varied opportunity for the development of per
sonality and for the enjoyment of leisure. Since the indi
vidualistic-avocational aim of education deals primarily
with the leisure part of life its importance is constantly
minimized by educational theorists. Thus Spencer, identi-

1 The terms "culture" and "cultural" are purposely avoided here be-
cause of their ambiguity in modern educational thought.

372 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

fying preparation for leisure with preparation for the refine-
ments of life, says: *

Accomplishments, the fine arts, belles-lettres, and all those things
which, as we say constitute the efflorescence of civilization, should
be wholly subordinate to that knowledge and discipline in which
civilization rests. As they occupy the leisure part of life, so should
they occupy the leisure part of education.

The following considerations suggest that such a concep-
tion is fallacious.

(1) Preparation for the leisure part of life is very far
from being confined to "accomplishments, fine arts, belles-
lettres," and preparation in such fields would be far from
adequate for the proper utilization of leisure, were it possible
to provide such training for all. The average individual
has from one quarter to one fifth of his time for leisure. His
action during leisure is as much a matter of social concern
(at least in a negative sense) as his action in any other part of
his life. Within recent years there has been a constant ten-
dency to increase the amount of leisure time at the disposal
of the individual. That increase in the amount of leisure
has introduced problems of no slight importance for second-
ary education.

(2) While the individual's activities during his leisure
time are not designed primarily to make positive contribu-
tions to social well-being and to social progress and while
they do not tend on the whole to build up society, unless
directed along desirable social lines they may and doubtless
do tend to interfere seriously with that process, or even, in
some cases, to tear civilization down. Vice and social degen-
eration find fertile soil in leisure. The social menace of the
activities of leisure not well guided, where standards, habits,
and ideals have not been established along desirable social
lines, is by no means slight or unimportant. Let the leisure

1 Spencer, H., Education, chap, i (Hurt edition), p. 68.

AIMS AND FUNCTIONS 573

time of any society be well controlled and there is little dan-
ger that such a society will not endure and prosper. Let the
leisure time of any society be neglected or misused and there
is little hope that it will prosper.

(3) The conditions of modern industry have tended
(a) to allow the worker an increased amount of leisure time,
and (6) to reduce the stimuli and opportunities for personal
development and personal enjoyment in and through labor
itself. Factory labor has tended to reduce the economic
activity of the worker to a level of deadening monotony
where either development or enjoyment is reduced to lowest
terms. In some way those stimuli and opportunities for
personal development and personal enjoyment must be
provided in modern life.

(4) It is altogether probable that in this country the time
is rapidly approaching, if indeed it has not already arrived,
when conditions of labor cannot continue to decrease the
ultimate efficiency of the worker by failing to allow sufficient
leisure for re-creation through recreation. It remains to be
seen whether or not the increased leisure and the extended
opportunity to utilize leisure may not seriously impair the
social efficiency of our society, if greater preparation for the
intelligent and sane use of leisure is not provided.

Legitimate fields for the carrying-out of the individual-
istic-avocational aim of secondary education may well
include, among others, the following: (a) the development
of a sense of social responsibility for individual action, even
where the primary object is legitimately personal develop-
ment and personal enjoyment, i.e., a respect for the rights
and interests of others; (6) the development of tastes and
standards for enjoyment and the use of leisure — moral and
aesthetic, e.g., in reading, in the theater, in physical recre-
ation, etc.; (c) the development of self-sustaining habits
of amusement along desirable lines — the development of

374 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

interests, hobbies, etc., which may prevent one from sink-
ing to grosser pleasures through a lack of higher interests;

(d) a knowledge of certain pleasure evils and their results;

(e) the development of pleasure interests, where possible,
which are at the same time social benefits and means of per-
sonal enjoyment.

155. The interrelation of the three aims. It has already
been suggested that these three aims of secondary education
are not mutually independent, but rather are interrelated
and interdependent, since they represent but three different
phases of life which concern each individual. Historically
the necessary interrelation of the three aims has not always
been properly recognized, with the result that some one of
the aims has been emphasized to the neglect or under-valua-
tion of the others. Thus neglect or insufficient attention to
the economic-vocational aim in the past is recognized by
those familiar with the history of education. Its over-
emphasis is not impossible in some cases at the present time.
Thus the individualistic-avocational aim has received more
than its just due at some times in the past. Its neglect is a
possibility in some cases at the present time. The possi-
bility of separating the three aims for purposes of objective
analysis should not lead to the assumption that they can
be separated in the case of any individual's education. No
form of secondary education which fails to provide ade-
quately for all three forms of activity can be considered
satisfactory.

156. Aims based on traits involved. In the preceding
discussion the aims of secondary education have been con-
sidered in terms of the activities involved in life. Efficient
participation in those activities depends on the employment
of physicial, mental, moral, and aesthetic traits which must
be developed in individuals. Hence the attainment of the
aims set is conditioned by the development of physical effi-

AIMS AND FUNCTIONS 375

ciency, mental efficiency, moral efficiency, and aesthetic
efficiency of pupils. These four elements may be conceived
as objectives of education cutting cross-sections through
each of the social aims formulated above, no one of which
is attainable without their development. With whichever of
the two sets of aims one starts he is bound soon to reach and
consider the other. The more promising approach, however,
is the social.

II. THE FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

157. The functions of secondary education. For present
purposes the term "functions" is employed to designate
certain elements for which secondary education must pro-
vide if the aims previously formulated are to be attained.
Those functions are determined in part by the nature of
society and in part by the nature of the pupils to be educated,
factors which in important ways condition the attainment
of the aims set. If we conceive of the aims of secondary
education as the ultimate goals which it is to attain we must
recognize that certain factors must be involved hi the at-
tempt to reach those goals. Thus we may conceive of the
social-civic aim of secondary education as involving prepa-
ration for efficient participation in social-civic life. Many
important functions are therein involved, e.g., means of
adjusting the individual and his social environment, the
development of a "social mind" and social cohesion among
groups of individuals, the adjustment of individual differ-
ences to the differentiated needs of society, control of the
factor of selection in secondary education, educational,
moral, social, and vocational guidance.

The remaining sections of this chapter will deal with the
following six important functions of secondary education:
(1) the adjustive or adaptive function; (2) the integrating

376 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

function; (3) the differentiating function; (4) the propae-
deutic function; (5) the selective function; (6) the diagnostic
and directive function. Their relation to the aims of second-
ary education will appear ijaore clearly from the following
discussion.

158. The adjustive or adaptive function. It is a postulate
of the social aim of secondary education that it should pro-
vide means for the adjustment of the pupil to his social
environment. In section 143 (Chapter IX) it was maintained
that the social environment to which the secondary-school
pupil is to be adjusted is dynamic, not static, and that the
rapidity of social change is so great as to warrant the assump-
tion that the social environment in which the present pupil
is later to live will in important respects differ from that of
the present. The course of social evolution shows clearly
that for any one generation the total social organization
represents a composite of relatively stable and constant
elements of the past and certain elements appropriate to
the present. It also implies that the present social organiza-
tion comprises certain elements which may be expected to
remain relatively stable and constant in the near future,
and others which we may confidently expect to be either
entirely lost or radically modified. This suggests that mere
adjustment through the development of relatively fixed
habits of reaction is fairly adequate for those elements which
may be conceived as destined in all likelihood to remain
relatively unchanged in their essential characteristics within
the life of the present generation. It suggests also, however,
that adjustment alone (in the sense of the establishment of
fixed habits of reaction) is insufficient, and that some capac-
ity for readjustment must be developed if the individual is
to be prepared for the changing conditions which will in-
evitably come during his life after the period of formal
education. In other words, the adjustive function of second-

AIMS AND FUNCTIONS 377

ary education includes both the establishment of certain
fixed habits of reaction, certain fixed standards and ideals,
and also the development of a capacity to readjust ade-
quately to the changing demands of Me. Tempora mutantur,
el nos mutamur in illis, is true with regard to the times; it is
true of iis only in a collective sense and to the extent that
readaptation is possible.

159. The integrating function. In section 144 (Chapter
IX) the bearing of the social factors of integration and differ-
entiation on secondary education was discussed. It was there
pointed out that one of the imperative demands made by
society on the secondary school is provision for the develop-
ment of that amount of like-mindedness, of unity hi thought,
habits, ideals, and standards, requisite for social cohesion
and social solidarity. From this arises the integrating func-
tion of secondary education, which in this country particu-
larly is constantly acquiring greater and greater importance
for a number of reasons. Among these may be mentioned
the following:

(1) The increasing complexity of life in a modern democ-
racy constantly increases the amount of common knowledge,
of common action, and common ideals necessary. The ele-
mentary school is constantly becoming less and less ade-
quate for this need.

(2) The increasing heterogeneity of the population hi this
country tends constantly to increase the diversity of social
heredity and therefore to render the process of social inte-
gration more necessary and more difficult.

(3) The increasing diversity of industrial occupations and
of living conditions tends constantly to increase the forces
of differentiation demanding increased forces of integration
to balance and compensate.

(4) Other institutions which formerly operated as inte-
grating agencies have been modified in such a way as to

378 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

operate with diminished force in that direction or have
proved quite inadequate for that purpose under the changed
conditions of society: e.g., the Church and religion.

To conceive that the factor of integration is of importance
in connection with problems of "class distinction" only is
an error. Important as those problems are for a democracy
they involve but a part only of a more fundamental problem
including other problems of social integration.

160. The differentiating function. The integrating func-
tion must at all times be conceived as correlated with the
differentiating function of secondary education and the
relation between the two functions must be considered as
supplemental rather than conflicting, the supplemental rela-
tion being necessitated by the relation of the two factors of
integration and differentiation in the process of social evolu-
tion. As the integrating function of secondary education
arises out of the necessity of developing a certain amount of
homogeneity out of the heterogeneous population for the
purpose of assuring social solidarity, so the differentiating
function of secondary education arises out of the necessity
of taking advantage of the differences among individuals for
the purpose of determining social efficiency.

Two facts make this differentiating function in secondary
education both possible and necessary:

(1) Pupils in the secondary school (the raw material with
which secondary education must perforce deal and which
conditions its operation) differ greatly in native capacities,
in acquired tendencies (especially as conditioned by training
outside the school), in interests and aptitudes. Failure to
recognize this fundamental fact at any time must inevitably
mean failure to do justice to the individual and failure to
develop the highest social efficiency out of the raw material
available.

(2) The diversified needs of modern industrial and social

AIMS AND FUNCTIONS 379

life demand preparation for widely different forms of activ-
ity which cannot be provided for all individuals. Moreover,
if such universal preparation were possible, it would be
extremely wasteful and undesirable. The differentiated
activities of life demand differentiated education, the burden
of which, as far as formal education is concerned, must be
borne by the secondary school.

161. The propaedeutic function. The propaedeutic func-
tion of secondary education is merely one phase of the adjus-
tive function, having reference to a part only of secondary-
school pupils — those preparing to continue their formal
education in some higher institution. Preparation for such
higher education cannot be considered as a separate aim of
secondary education. It must be considered, however, as a
legitimate function of secondary education in the case of
those pupils whose preparation for the attainment of the
ultimate aims of education may be extended over a longer
period of time than that of the great majority. The general
aims of the education of such pupils remain the same aims
formulated above, namely, the social-civic aim, the economic-
vocational aim, and the individualistic-avocational aim.

A number of factors, however, affect the attainment of
those aims in the case of the pupils who will continue their
formal education in some higher institution. A more inten-
sive and more extensive preparation for the social-civic
activities is possible; preparation for vocational activities in
its direct and specific form is deferred; different forms of
preparation for different modes of leisure are possible and
justified; a somewhat higher selection of pupils is common,
at least with reference to social and economic status. As the
activities of such pupils will "function" differently in life
after the period of formal education, so must the function
of secondary education differ somewhat in the case of such
pupils.

380 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Common practice tends either to over-estimate or to under-
estimate the propaedeutic function of secondary education.
In the past this function has commonly received altogether
too much attention, and the rather definite requirements of
preparation for higher education have tended to overbalance
the whole economy of secondary education in this country
until it became the dominant aim of the secondary school
instead of occupying its legitimate place as a contributing
function. On the other hand, the present revolt against such
a domination of college preparation has in some cases led to
a gross under-estimate of the importance of the propaedeutic
function of secondary education. This has already been dis-
cussed in section 128, and requires no further considera-
tion here, except, perhaps, to recall the fact that secondary-
school pupils destined to continue their formal education
in higher institutions comprise the largest roughly homo-
geneous group of pupils in the public secondary school —
homogeneous in the sense that a complete secondary -school
course may be mapped out for this group much more readily
than for any other group and in the sense that a rather
definite and tangible temporary goal may be set up for their
education. Whatever be the particular form that the artic-
ulation between secondary education and higher education
may eventually assume, it must be recognized that prepara-
tion for higher education must be one of the legitimate
functions of secondary education. Nevertheless it must also
be recognized that it is but one of a number of functions.

162. The selective function. Selection is a necessary
function of any form of education, the necessity arising from
the factor of individual differences which become an increas-
ingly important factor as the course of education proceeds
higher and makes a greater demand on capacity. It was
pointed out in Chapter III that individuals differ widely in
mental traits. In so far as those differences are due to the

AIMS AND FUNCTIONS 381

limits of capacity set by nature and to rates of development
also determined by nature it is clear that, as education de-
mands more and more capacity, with certain individuals the
limits of then* capacity are reached, or, what is more com-
mon, the point is approached at which given possible
amounts of training produce results incommensurate with
the amount of teaching and learning energy expended, and
the point of diminishing returns is reached. No amount of
training can ever equalize the abilities of individuals whose
native capacities differ to any marked degree. Hence selec-
tion must inevitably be a function of secondary education.

The selective function of secondary education may be
viewed from two somewhat different but related aspects.
From one aspect selection is commonly considered as in-
volving the elimination of those individuals who are unable
to meet the demands set. To this view little objection could
be raised, provided, and only provided, that the demands
set could be justified. In the past in this country and at
present in some countries the demands set were largely
based on the assumption that ability and willingness to meet
the requirements of certain specified subjects of study with
limited range measure intellectual ability in general — a
theory which itself rests on the further assumption that
either all desirable mental traits are involved hi the specific
subjects selected, or the improvement in the mental traits
involved can be transferred to other material. Such a theory
is discussed in detail in later sections. For the present it is
sufficient to state that the theory must certainly be greatly
modified and that it cannot justify emphasis on any small
number of subjects in the secondary school as affording
adequate training for all or as affording a training which is
susceptible of unlimited transfer.

In contrast to selection by elimination the second aspect
of the selective function of secondary education emphasizes

382 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

selection by differentiation. Its justification rests on two
considerations: (1) that individuals differ in capacities, inter-
ests, and the nature of environmental influences, those
differences appearing not in the sum total of mental traits,
but in the various mental traits as related to each other;
(2) that, within limits, training in various specific mental
traits or groups of traits is justified from a social viewpoint.
In terms of psychology it assumes that different mental
traits are found in different individuals in different degrees.
In terms of sociology it means that no one subject or group
of subjects can claim exclusive place in secondary education
and that different subjects or groups of subjects are equally
justified from the viewpoint of social economy. In terms of
school practice it means that if a pupil lacks ability or inter-
est in one field of study but possesses ability and interest in
another, discrimination is justified, and, particularly in the
public secondary school, that pupil has a right to receive
education in fields for which he possesses ability and interest.
He cannot be deprived of the opportunity for education
because of inability or lack of interest in some officially
favored subject or subjects.

163. The diagnostic and directive function. A phase of
the adjustive function, and one closely related to the selec-
tive and differentiating functions, is the diagnostic and direc-
tive function of secondary education. Social economy and
personal efficiency and happiness postulate that each indi-
vidual, as far as may be possible, should do what he can best
do. The determination of what each pupil may best do and
what he may do with the greatest efficiency and happiness
cannot be accomplished unless he is brought into contact
with a somewhat wide range of experiences, in large part
through studies in the secondary school. Hence the school
must provide materials to acquaint the pupil with various
activities of life, must give him some opportunity to test

AIMS AND FUNCTIONS 383

out and explore his capacities and interests, and must pro-
vide some direction and guidance therefor. The mere offer-
ing of various forms of instruction does not complete the
work of the secondary school. It must, as far as may be
possible, add to that function the function of exploring,
testing, diagnosing, and directing the education of the pupil.
It must permit the pupil to discover and test his own special
aptitudes and capacities, and must assist in that process
through a thoroughgoing system of educational guidance,
including educational guidance and direction in the narrower
sense, moral guidance, social guidance, physical guidance,
and vocational guidance.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. In this chapter the aims of secondary education have been formulated
from the social viewpoint. How would the aims be modified if ap-
proached from the individualistic viewpoint?

2. How would a religious aim be related to the aims formulated in this
chapter?

8. Compare as many formulated amis of secondary education as you can
find. (Cf. the references following, and Ruediger, W. C., The Principles
of Education, pp. 86-90.)

4. How is moral education related to the social-civic aim of secondary
education? (Cf . MacVannel, J. A., Outline of a Course in the Philosophy
of Education, pp. 99-115; Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, pp.
40-65.)

5. Trace each of the formulated aims of secondary education historically.

6. Consider with reference to secondary education the classification of the
activities of life made by Spencer. (Cf . Spencer, H., Education, chap. I,
pp. 17-22 (Burt edition).)

7. In connection with the adjustive aim of secondary education show how
the development of fixed habits of reaction are related to the develop-
memt of adaptability.

8. Show how the integrating function of secondary education affects the
attainment of the social-civic aim. What relation does it have to the
other aims?

9. Show how the differentiating function of secondary education is related
to the economic-vocational aim. What relation does it have to the other
aims?

10. Trace the history of the propaedeutic function of secondary education-

384 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

11. Compare the operation of the selective function of secondary education
in Germany, France, England, and America.

12. What are the present tendencies of the diagnostic function of secondary
education in the United States?

13. What are the present tendencies of the directive function of secondary
education?

14. What bearing does the relation between the integrating and the differ-
entiating functions of secondary education have on problems of organi-
zation in the American secondary school ? On the administration of the
curriculum and course of study?

15. What bearing does the selective function of secondary education have
on the American secondary school?

16. What effects has the neglect of the diagnostic and directive functions
had on secondary education in this country?

SELECTED REFERENCES

Colvin, S. S., An Introduction to High-School Teaching, chap. i.

Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, chap, m, pp. 40-65.

Davis, C. O., High-School Courses of Study, pp. 1-11.

Hanus, P. H., Educational Aims and Values, chap, rv, pp. 73-138.

Henderson, E. N., Textbook in the Principles of Education, pp. 1-24, 478-501.

Inglis, A. J., "The Socialization of the High School," Teachers College

Record, vol. xvi, pp. 205-16.
National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization of

Secondary Education, Report of the Revieunng Committee, Bureau of

Education Bulletin.

Parker, S. C., Methods of Teaching in High Schools, chap, n, pp. 5-24.
Rapeer, L. W., "A Core Curriculum for High Schools," School and Society,

vol. v, pp. 541-49.

Ruediger, W. C., Principles of Education, pp. 38-90.
Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xn.
Snedden D., in Seventy-Seventh Annual Report of the Massachusetts Board of

Education (January, 1914), pp. 88-119.
Snedden, D., chap, xxi (pp. 745-74) of Monroe, P. (Editor), Principles of

Secondary Education.
Stout, J. E., The High School, chaps, n-vm, pp. 14-87.

CHAPTER XI

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES — CRITERIA OF SUBJECT
VALUES: ANALYSIS OF THE PROGRAM

164. Subject values determined by aims and functions.
The value of any subject of study for secondary education
is to be determined and measured by the degree in which it
may contribute to the attainment of the aims of secondary
education and meet the demands of the functions of the
secondary school. In the preceding chapter those aims were
formulated as: (1) the social-civic aim, involving the prepa-
ration of the individual with respect to his social efficiency
in the narrower sense of that term; (2) the economic-voca-
tional aim, involving the preparation of the individual with
respect to his economic efficiency; and (3) the individualistic-
avocational aim, involving the preparation of the individual
with respect to the worthy utilization of his leisure time.
Hence the value of any subject of study is to be measured
according to the degree in which it may contribute directly
or indirectly to the attainment of those desired ends, and
the aims or purposes of any accepted subject of study in the
secondary school are to be determined accordingly.

In the preceding chapter the aims of secondary education
were formulated in general terms only, a necessary condition
in formulating aims designed to hold at all times and in all
places and a necessity resulting from our present lack of
social, economic, physiological, and psychological data.
Aims formulated in that way can be of service for general
guidance only and must be analyzed and interpreted in
particular terms before any adequate attempt can be made
to measure the specific values of special subjects of study in

388 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

secondary education. Thus we may set the preparation of
the individual as a prospective worker or producer as one
essential aim of the secondary school, but before any such
preparation can be accomplished with satisfactory results
it will be necessary for us to have knowledge of the specific
capacities, skills, knowledges, and acquired habits required
by the various vocational processes and knowledge of the
special abilities, skills, knowledges, and habits which may
be developed through the study of various subjects. Like-
wise with the preparation of the individual for the other
activities of life. Needless to say the sciences of sociology,
economics, physiology, and psychology in the present stage
of their development cannot begin to afford us the necessary
data for such purposes and we are forced, therefore, to fall
back on more or less empirical analysis of the problem, util-
izing the results of accepted special principles of the sciences
mentioned where they are available and where such special
principles fail falling back on the general principles estab-
lished in those fields.

In the chapters immediately following the present chap-
ter, analyses of special subjects of study in the secondary
school are attempted. In this chapter attention will be
devoted to certain general principles underlying the deter-
mination of the program of studies. In particular the dis-
cussion will concern: I. Direct Values; II. Indirect Values.

I. DIRECT VALUES

165. Direct values. By direct values are meant here those
values which arise out of the fact that the specific abilities,
knowledges, skills, etc., developed in and through a subject
of study in the secondary school are directly and immediately
applicable in certain phases of activity in life. Thus the
elements of skill developed through the study of stenography

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 389

or typewriting are directly applicable in certain very similar
activities outside the school. Thus the use of the mother
tongue has direct value. Thus the association 5 X 6 = 30
has direct value for life.

Direct values are so obvious that the ready acceptance of
them is likely to lead us to overlook certain facts that are
involved. It is probable that no subject of study which is a
serious candidate for membership in the program of studies
of the secondary school is wholly without some direct values
for the real activities of life. It is obvious, therefore, that the
problem must always concern the amount of direct value
involved. It is obvious also that the amount of direct values
found in any given subject must depend on the proportion
of all individuals who may find occasion for the application
of the abilities, knowledges, skills, etc., developed through
the study of a given subject and the number of occasions in
which they may apply. In other words direct values are
relative, a fact obvious enough and yet a fact which has
frequently been ignored by educational experts and one
which is seldom recognized by teachers and pupils. Several
misconceptions arising out of a failure to recognize the
relativity of direct values are important enough to require
special consideration.

(1) One fallacy very common in educational theory and
practice arises out of the failure to recognize a distinction
between (a) fields of knowledge or skill which are of inesti-
mable value to society and to civilization in their extended
development through relatively few specialists, and (6) fields
of knowledge or skill which are directly valuable for all or a
majority of individuals. In arguments for the direct values
of many subjects (especially the material sciences) the advo-
cates of those subjects of study for the secondary school con-
stantly emphasize the great contributions which those
sciences have made to the advance of society and civiliza-

390 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

tion and tend to ignore the fact that those contributions
have always come through the specialist. The fallacy in-
volved is one of the most important of the numerous falla-
cies found in the analysis of subject values made by Spencer
in his essay on "What Knowledge Is Of Most Worth? " One
may readily grant the values of any given science for society
and the necessity of a knowledge of that science on the part
of some individuals for the advantage of all individuals,
without thereby accepting the theory that all individuals
should receive training in that science.

(2) Closely related to the first fallacy considered above is
a second common fallacy which consists in a failure to dis-
tinguish between values of production and values of con-
sumption, between values of accomplishment and values of
utilization. Many subjects of study which are of almost
universal value from the viewpoint of a development of
efficiency in consumption, utilization, and appreciation,
have but very restricted value from the viewpoint of a
development of efficiency in production and accomplish-
ment. Thus it is a fact that all individuals must to some
extent utilize the force of electricity and the ability to utilize
the results of the science dealing with electricity is required
of all individuals so that some universal values follow. This
does not mean, however, that all individuals must be
acquainted with the science of physics or even that part
which deals with electricity any more than they need ac-
quaintance with the subject of physics in order to apply the
mechanics involved in walking. We may assume that
nearly every individual is affected by the use of electricity
directly in a large number of his everyday activities through
the utilization of the electric light, the electric car, the tele-
phone, telegraph, and a multitude of other applied forms of
that force. It is to be noted, however, that such utilization
requires nothing more than such simple kinds of knowledge

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 391

and skill as are involved in pushing a button for light, pay-
ing one's fare on the car, avoiding "live" wires, using the
telephone receiver and transmitter, writing out a tele-
graphic message, etc. — abilities which demand no exten-
sive study of physics and which, as a matter of fact, have less
to do directly with electricity than with other kinds of knowl-
edge and skill. Expertness in production or accomplish-
ment, in technical knowledge of processes, is not a necessary
condition of expertness in consumption, or utilization, or
appreciation, and the universality of use, consumption, or
appreciation is no measure of universality of production,
technical knowledge and skill, or accomplishment. All people
wear shoes and it is necessary that every individual should
have some knowledge of the way in which shoes should be
worn or what may be expected of shoes in the way of looks
and wear. It would be absurd, however, to measure the
importance of a knowledge on the part of all people of the
production of shoes by the importance of their use, and it is
just as absurd to measure the values of subjects of study (as
far as direct values are concerned) in terms of the univer-
sality of the use or consumption of their products. What all
people use they need to be trained how to use to the extent
only of their actual use. For efficient use, however, no exten-
sive study of most fields of knowledge is requisite for most
people.

(3) A third fallacy not infrequently found is one which
involves a failure to distinguish between certain and con-
tingent values, a failure to recognize the relativity of values
based on the probability that circumstances will occur in the
lives of given individuals where specified kinds of knowledge
or skill may be of service.1 Studies which may be of great
value to individuals on the contingency that they come into

1 The distinction is well drawn by Young, J. W. A., Tlie Teaching of
Mathematics, pp. 13-14.

892 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

contact with unforeseen situations, may be of little value
unless they actually meet with those situations. The direct
values of the study of secondary-school mathematics or
foreign languages are highly contingent for the majority of
pupils at present engaged in their study.

(4) A fourth fallacy frequently found hi estimating the
values of most subjects of study hi the secondary school
involves a failure to distinguish between the values attach-
ing to certain parts only of any given subject and the values
attaching to the whole related field of knowledge as organ-
ized into a logical system. The fallacy arises somewhat as
follows: element A is recognized as possessing universal
values for direct application hi life: element A belongs to
that field of organized knowledge which goes under the name
of English, mathematics, science, etc. : On this basis English,
mathematics, science, etc., is introduced into the program
of studies. Once introduced a multitude of other elements
(B, C, D, E, etc.) are introduced under the general subject
title and values attached to them which may belong legiti-
mately to element A alone. In so far as element A depends
for its functioning on the other elements involved such a
process may be justified within limits. Not infrequently,
however, the spread of borrowed values is quite illegitimate.

From the considerations adduced above it is clear that the
direct values of any field of study in the secondary school
are to be measured according to :

(a) The proportion of all individuals in whose lives situ-
ations will arise calling for the direct application of such
knowledges,' abilities, skills, etc., as are involved in that field
of study. Are the values universal? If not, to what propor-
tion of all individuals will they in all probability apply?
Are they effective through the specialist or through all
individuals?

(6) The number of occasions in the lives of individuals

393

where the knowledges, etc., will apply. Are the values cer-
tain or contingent? Is the likelihood great or small that
provocative situations will occur in the lives of many
individuals?

(c) The character of the responses called for by situations
in life. Are they such as to demand efficiency in production,
accomplishment and thorough knowledge, or efficiency in
consumption, utilization, and appreciation?

(d) The relation of the particular elements of approved
value to the entire field of knowledge to which they belong.
Are the various constituent elements which go to make up
the body of any field of knowledge or any science (in the
general sense) extensive enough or closely enough interre-
lated to justify the study of the general field as an organized
and logically determined science? Are they isolated values
or dependent values?

(e) The extent to which pre-secondary education or the
informal education of life does not and cannot adequately
provide training in the elements desired; e.g., how much
direct value in mathematics is to be found for pupils in
general after arithmetic has been successfully studied?

(/) The extent to which various elements of a given sub-
ject, not to any great degree directly applicable to situations
in life, may be of value for training in subjects or elements
of subjects which are of direct application in life; e.g., to
what extent are the elements of algebra or geometry of
value in the pursuit of other subjects which may have more
direct bearing on life for the majority of individuals?

It is obvious that any exact analysis of these factors is
quite impossible in the present state of our, knowledge. In
a general way, however, it is possible to apply these criteria
at least to the extent that we may be able to avoid dogmatic
statement where the fallacies mentioned may be and fre-
quently are involved. In the chapters on the values of the

394 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

various subjects of the program of studies in the secondary
school these criteria will be applied as measures of the direct
values of the different subjects.

II. INDIRECT VALUES

166. The transfer of improved efficiency. Throughout
the history of secondary education certain subjects of study
have occupied prominent positions in the secondary-school
program on the basis of an assumption, implied or explicitly
stated, that valuable general abilities may be developed
through training in specific fields. Until relatively recent
times such an assumption necessarily followed from the
prevailing theory of "faculty psychology," which postulated
that the mind was made up of a number of practically inde-
pendent "faculties," such as the faculty of memory, the
faculty of attention, the faculty of reasoning, and the like.
It was held that these independent "faculties" trained
through exercise on any given kind of material might then
be employed in their improved efficiency on any other
material, just as the muscles of the body trained by any
given kind of exercise might be employed in their improved
efficiency on any other form of exercise or labor. With the
rise of modern psychology the theory of "faculty psychol-
ogy" was relegated to the limbo of discarded absurdities
and the necessity arose for a reexamination of indirect or
general values and the statement of such values in terms of
modern psychological theory. Such a reexamination involves
the consideration of at least four related problems:

(1) Is it possible that efficiency improved through exer-
cise on material (in studies) of one kind may be applied to
material in a different field? Is there such a thing as the
transfer or spread of improved efficiency? (2) If such
transfer or spread of improved efficiency is possible, what is

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 395

the mode of its operation? (3) If it is possible, what is its
probable extent? (4) If it is possible, are there any subjects
of study which possess important transfer values?

167. Is transfer or spread a reality? In spite of the severe
attacks which have been directed against theories of the
transfer or spread of improved efficiency, apparently no one
denies its existence and the first problem propounded may
be answered at once in the affirmative. Thus, as representing
two opposing schools of thought as far as other problems of
transfer values are concerned, we may note the agreement
of Thorndike and Judd. Thus Thorndike states: l

No one can doubt that all of the ordinary forms of home or school
training have some influence upon mental traits in addition to the
specific changes which they make in the particular function the
improvement of which is their direct object. On the other hand,
no careful observer would assert that the influence upon the other
mental traits is comparable in amount to that upon the direct
object of training. — The real question is not, 'Does improvement
of one function alter others?' but, 'To what extent, and how,
does it?'

And Judd:2

Special emphasis may furthermore be laid on the fact that there
is no one who denies that some kind of transfer takes place. The
real questions at issue are what is the degree of transfer and what
is its method?

As stated in the two quotations the vital problems be-
come: What of the manner in which transfer or spread of
improved efficiency takes place? and, Is the extent of trans-
fer or spread sufficient to warrant any emphasis on it in
determining the relative values of subjects of study in the

1 Thorndike, E. L., The Psychology of Learning, p. 358. This and follow-
ing quotations are made with the permission of the publishers, Teachers
College Bureau of Publications.

2 Judd, C. H., The Psychology of High-School Subjects, p. 404. Quoted
with the permission of the publishers, Ginn and Company.

396 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

school? We may proceed at once, therefore, to the consid-
eration of those two problems which are, of course, closely
related.

1 68. What is the mode of transfer or spread? Considera-
tion of this problem may be introduced by quotations illus-
trating two " diametrically opposed " views. Thus Thorn
dike:1

The answer which I shall try to defend is that a change in one
function alters any other only in so far as the two functions have
as factors identical elements. The change in the second function is
in amount that due to the change in the elements common to it
and the first. The change is simply the necessary result upon the
second function of the alteration of those of its factors which were
elements of the first function, and so were altered by its training. . . .

Chief amongst such identical elements of practical importance
in education. are associations including ideas about aims and ideas
of method and general principles, and associations involving ele-
mentary facts of experience such as length, color, number, which
are repeated again and again in different combinations.

By identical elements are meant mental processes which have
the same cell action in the brain as their physical correlate.

Quite different is this from the theory of Judd that " trans-
fer depends on the power of generalization " which empha-
sizes the fact that the power to generalize on the basis of
specific experience is an original datum of the mind, always
potential but depending for its emergence on training.

When one studies the psychology of generalization he becomes
aware of the uselessness of some of the formulas which have been
proposed by those who hold that transfer of training takes place
in cases where there are identical elements present. The identical
element is usually contributed by the generalizing mind. On the
other hand, there may be identical elements potentially present in
various situations, but wholly unobserved by the untrained or
lethargic mind. In fact, the discovery of the identical element in a
situation is in some cases the whole problem of training.2

1 Thorndike, E. L., op. cit., pp. 35»-59. 2 Judd, C. H., op. cit., p. 414.

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 397

In the same fashion we may show that the principles of intel-
lectual economy which Thorndike frequently includes in his state-
ment of identical modes of procedure, namely, the principles that
one can learn to avoid distractions of all sorts, or that he can refuse
to give up a piece of work even when it is uncomfortable, represent
generalized identities of procedure which are not always realized.
In all these cases we must distinguish sharply between the possi-
bility of identical modes of procedure and the actual achievement
of this identity. Such an achievement depends upon the exercise
of trained intelligence. The existence of possible modes of proce-
dure does not invariably lead to their realization in fact.1

These views have been presented, not for the purpose of
analysis or criticism, but as illustrative of different ap-
proaches to the problem of the method by which the trans-
fer or spread of improved efficiency operates. The treat-
ment of the problem in the following sections involves some
of the elements found in the theory of Thorndike and some
found in the theory of Judd. To the writer, at least, the two
theories formulated by those psychologists are by no means
irreconcilable in all respects.

169. Transfer or spread dependent on dissociation.
No two situations hi life calling for action on the part of any
individual are ever exactly alike in all respects. Hence
training for an absolutely fixed and specific reaction to any
given situation is an impossible and valueless process.
Strictly speaking there is no such thing as specific discipline.
Fortunately for the economy of mental life and efficiency
in behavior it is possible for the mind to select certain parts
of any total situation and react to those parts with a mini-
mum of attention to other parts of the total situation.
Since such parts of total situations may be essentially the
same it is possible to establish what in all important respects
are specific situation-response connections, and hence it is
possible to assign values to specific discipline. However,
1 Judd, C. H., op. cit., p. 416.

398 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

through this same characteristic of the human mind comes
also the possibility of abstracting from a number of total
specific situations, differing with respect to most of their,
constituent elements, any given element which may be com-
mon to all the total situations or a majority of them. Thus
we get the law of dissociation expressed by Thorndike as
follows: *

Any element of mental life which is felt as a part of many total
mental states, differing in all else save its presence, comes thereby
to be felt as an idea by itself, and any movement which has been
made as a part of many complex movements differing in all else
save its presence comes thereby to be made as a movement by
itself.

It is upon this process of dissociation that the abstraction
of any general law, idea, principle, method, or the like must
rest and the process of developing abstract or general ideas
is a process of dissociation. Since the law itself is but an
expression of a mode of mental life which is innate it merely
expresses the "power of generalization" which is innate in
the human mind and must be considered as an original
datum without which the growth of mental life would be
impossible.

The basis of the transfer or spread of improved efficiency
is found in this law of dissociation or generalization. Just
as a knowledge of sixness is acquired from experiencing
its manifestation in six apples, six marbles, six men, etc.,
just as a knowledge of whiteness is acquired from experienc-
ing its manifestation in white paper, white paint, white
snow, white cats, etc., just as the meaning of number is
acquired from experiencing its various manifestations in two
objects, ten objects, etc., just as a concept of honesty is
acquired from its manifestation in divers forms; just as a
general principle of grammar, of mathematics, of science, of

1 Thorndike, E. L., Elements of Psychology, p. 217 (2d edition, 1907).

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 399

economics, is acquired by experiencing its manifestation in
varying circumstances, — just so an idea of accuracy, an
ideal of thoroughness, a concept of method, a habit of work,
or the like, may be abstracted from its manifestation in
varied fields and may be generalized on the basis of differ-
ing specific experiences. In all these cases the funda
mental process is the same and the method of transfer or
spread of improved efficiency is nothing more, nothing less,
than the ordinary process of dissociation or generalization.

Whether or not dissociation or generalization takes place
depends on two factors — the mental attitude or " mind-
set" which the individual brings to the situation, and the
character of the situation experienced. Subjective elements
are no less important than objective elements. It is per-
fectly possible for generalization to be potential in any set
of situations without that generalization taking place be-
cause of the mind's attention to other elements than those
involved in the dissociative element. On the other hand, it
is perfectly possible for the mental attitude to project into
objective situations a generalizing factor that is not highly
fostered by the situation itself apart from subjective ele-
ments, though always there must be something hi the objec-
tive situation to which the mind-set may be attached.

170. Factors which foster and facilitate dissociation.
While dissociation and generalization are normal processes
of the human mind and while they may be expected to
operate with or without direction in the school, it is also true
that certain factors may be arranged as to foster and facili-
tate the processes. The essential factors involved are four: J

(1) A number of total situations must be experienced il
which (a) the element to be dissociated and general-
ized is present in prominence, and (6) the other ele
ments of the situation vary;

1 Cf. Thorndike, E. L., Principles of Teaching, p. 135.

400 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

(2) The element to be dissociated and generalized must be
brought into the field of focal attention;

(3) The element to be dissociated and generalized must
be of such a character that it may be held in the mind
as a separate element. This is commonly facilitated
when a distinguishing name or other symbol may be
attached, or when a generalized definition or law is
formulated;

(4) Practice must be given in applying the dissociated
and generalized element in new situations.

Since dissociation is the basis of the transfer or spread of
improved efficiency and since the extensive operation of
dissociation is fostered by these factors, it is clear that any
subject of study which does not permit the organization of
materials in teaching so as to meet the conditions suggested
cannot be expected to offer the most favorable opportunities
for transfer. Further, it is clear that, as far as indirect val-
ues are concerned, subjects of study may to some extent be
measured according to the degree in which those conditions
can be met. Moreover, since the method by which material
is presented is also involved in meeting 'those conditions, it
follows that transfer cannot be expected to operate most
effectively, unless both subject-matter and the method of
teaching are adapted to the conditions favoring the process
of dissociation and generalization. Hence the emphasis by
Judd and Sleight on the importance of teaching method
in connection with the problems of transfer.1

171. The above principles illustrated. The principles
above outlined may be understood more clearly if applied
to studies in the secondary school. Prominent among the
conditions necessary to facilitate the transfer of any idea,
principle, method, law, ideal, or the like, is that which de-

1 Judd., op. tit., pp. 423-24, 432 /.; Sleight, W. G., Educational Values
and Methods, p. 171.

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 401

mands that the element to be dissociated and generalized
must remain essentially constant and that the other ele-
ments which are constituents of the total situations must
vary. If, on the other hand, two or more elements remain
constant, the resulting tendency is for those elements to be
bound together more and more closely. Thus, let it be
assumed that we wish to dissociate tiic element A from a
number of total situations all of which contain that one ele-
ment, but always in connection with other elements. Now,
as long as the total situations have A as the only important
constant element, conditions are favorable for the abstrac-
tion of A as a separate element. Thus in the total situations
represented by the following combinations of elements, —

(1) A B C D E F

(2) A G H I J K

(3) A L M N O P

(4) A Q R S T U

(-) etc., etc.,

conditions are favorable for the dissociation of the element
A, the only element common to all. If, on the other hand,
two elements, A and B, are constant in the total situations
experienced, the resulting tendency will be to dissociate
those elements together, and further to establish a strong
association between A and B, so that the two elements are
grouped and neither A nor B is dissociated by itself. Thus
in such total situations as may be represented by the com-
binations of elements, —

(1) A B C D E F

(2) A B G H I J

(3) A B K L M N

(4) A B O Q P R

(-) etc., etc.,

conditions are favorable for the dissociation of AB but not
of A or B alone, and the conditions favor the constant

402 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

association of the two elements which remain constant in
the total situations experienced.

In the majority, if not all, of the subjects of study in the
secondary school this is precisely the situation which arises to
limit the transfer or spread of improved efficiency, partly as
a result of the subject-matter employed, partly as a result of
the methods of teaching. The fact will appear more clearly
if we take a concrete illustration, e.g., from the field of geom-
etry as commonly taught. Assume that it is desired through
the study of geometry to develop a generalized method to be
employed in the reflective thinking (reasoning) involved in
problem solving — an element which is certainly involved
in the processes of geometry and in every other field of men-
tal activity. Call that element A. If we wish to facilitate
the process of its dissociation it must be kept constant in the
teaching of geometry. But also other elements in the total
situations must be made to vary. It is here that difficulty
arises, since it is extremely difficult to prevent certain other
elements from remaining constant. Thus there is always
present an element which makes it possible for us to recog-
nize that we are dealing with geometry — certain concepts
of space and number relations, and certain elements peculiar
to the mathematics " class," classroom, or teacher. Some
of those elements remain constant in spite of attempts to
vary elements of specific content, exercises, problems, etc.
Hence the normal situations in teaching geometry may be
represented by such combinations of elements as

(1) A B C D E F

(2) A B C G H I

(3) ABC J K L

(4) A B C M N O

(-) etc., etc.,

and as a result conditions favor not the dissociation of the
desired element A, but the constant association of ABC.

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 403

Thus in the great majority of cases the teaching of geometry
in our secondary schools tends to favor, not the isolation
and generalization of general methods of reflective thinking
related to problem solving, but the close association of such
methods to elements of geometrical content — a situation
to some extent interfering with the process of transfer.

This does not, however, mean that such dissociation and
subsequent transfer is impossible. Any such conclusion
would imply that all the individual's experiences in reflec-
tive thinking and problem solving outside the geometry
classroom are isolated from his experiences in that class-
room, and would leave out of account or minimize the innate
capacity of the mind to generalize on the basis of such other
experiences — a capacity differing among individuals appar-
ently according to original endowment. It would also leave
out of account the possibility that the desired method, prin-
ciple, or the like, may be isolated by the teacher or other
individual and raised into consciousness in terms of a general
law, rule, maxim, etc., expressed in terms which do not spe-
cifically associate content elements. Hence the bearing of
Bagley's statement: l

Unless the ideal has been developed consciously, there can be
no certainty that the power will be increased, no matter how in-
trinsically well the subject may have been mastered.

Hence also the importance attached by Thorndike to con-
nections " that carry vital maxims, notions of method, ideals
of accuracy, persistence, verification, openmindedness and
the like." 2 Likewise we find here the significance of the fact
that in Squire's experiment the development of neatness in
the case of arithmetic papers through training did not gen-
eralize neatness so as to function in geography and language

1 Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, p. 216.

2 Thorndike, E. L., The Psychology of Learning, p. 421.

404 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

papers,1 but, when the same experiment was repeated by
Ruediger with emphasis on the conscious ideal of neatness as
a general element, a general transfer of neatness was the
result.2

172. An answer to problem 2. The transfer or spread of
improved efficiency has its basis on the process of dissocia-
tion, which is a normal process depending on the innate
capacity of the mind to generalize on the basis of limited,
specific experiences. Such a process will take place to some
extent with or without definite provision in the school. Its
effective operation, however, may be fostered and facilitated
by providing recognized favorable conditions. Whenever
any element may be found which is a constituent of situa-
tions in different fields involving differing objective materials
or content, the dissociation, generalization, and transfer of
that element is always a potentiality. Whether or not it
becomes an actuality depends in large degree on the estab-
lishment of some or all of the conditions favoring the proc-
ess which have been described above. This involves both
the character of the materials employed and the teaching
methods used.

In passing, attention may be called to the fact that the
mere existence of common objective elements in varying
situations will not necessarily lead to dissociation and gen-
eralization. In fact it is by no 'means improbable that
greater emphasis should be placed on subjective elements.
Unless common objective elements are found in the varying
situations dissociation and transfer are impossible. Also,
however, unless some common subjective elements are
found no dissociation and transfer can materialize. The
possibility of transfer is found in the correlation of common
objective elements and common subjective elements. This

i Bagley, W. C., op. tit., p. 208.

a Ruediger, W. C., The Printiplcs of Education, pp. 108-10.

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 405

means that dissociation and transfer are not entirely auto-
matic. The conception that transfer will always be actual
where it is possible is a common error invalidating many
studies in this field.

173. Problem 3 : What is the extent of transfer ? In many
ways the most important problem involved in the matter
of the transfer or spread of improved efficiency concerns its
probable extent. Is the transfer insignificant in amount so
that for all practical purposes it may be ignored in questions
of educational values, or is it sufficiently extensive to war-
rant careful consideration in attempting to evaluate subjects
and methods of teaching? This is the question which must
be considered in connection with problem 3.

Before attempting to discuss the extent of the transfer
or spread of improved efficiency a word of warning is desir-
able. The main reason for troubling ourselves about prob-
lems of the transfer of improved efficiency is, of course, that,
if it is a reality and if it is appreciable in amount, it provides
for economy in education. Statements like the following are
common: " General discipline teaches that we should learn to
do A in order that we may be able to do B. Why not learn
to do A in order to learn to do A, and learn to do B in order
to do B? Why not learn to walk in order to walk, learn to
run in order to run, and learn to swim in order to swim? " l
Any such statement ignores the fundamental problem of
transfer. The sole justification for any possible emphasis on
" general discipline " would be that it is general, i.e., that
through training in A one may be better equipped thereby,
not only for B, but also for C, D, E, F, etc., — for a wide
variety of activities. In this connection three facts should
be kept in mind:

(1) The most enthusiastic proponent of transfer values
could not claim that efficiency developed in the function

1 Cf . Moore, E. C., in School and Society, vol. yi, p. 482, end of column 2.

406 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

which has been the direct object of special training can be
carried over unimpaired and without loss into functions
which have not received direct training. The 'most that
could be claimed is that an initial impetus may thereby be
given to the related activities and the acquirement of effi-
ciency in the related activities may be facilitated.

(2) The possible extent and importance of the transfer
or spread of improved efficiency is to be measured by the
sum total of its applications. If we represent the amounts of

the transfer in various activities by ai, a2, 03, an,

and represent the number of occasions in each case by

ti, t2, t3, tn, it is clear that the extent of the

transfer value in any instance is to be measured by the
formula

aiti + aztz + a3t3, + antn = x.

It is manifestly absurd to attempt to measure the extent
and value of transfer by a comparison of the amount of
improvement in the function which is the object of direct
training and another single function which may be affected
indirectly thereby. If there is any value to be attached to
" general training " it is because it does apply to a relatively
wide range of activities, not to any single activity. Hence
the pertinence of Thorndike's statement: :

Finally, it must be remembered that a very small spread of
training may be of very great educational value if it extends over a
wide enough field. If a hundred hours of training in being scientific
about chemistry produced only one hundredth as much improve-
ment in being scientific about all sorts of facts, it would yet be a
very remunerative educational force.

Hence also the absurdity of the implications in Sleight's
statements : 2

1 Thorndike, E. L., The Psychology of Learning, pp. 421-22.

2 Sleight, W. G., Educational Values and Methods, p. 73.

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 407

In those few cases where improvement was brought about in one
exercise through practice in another, as for example where practice
in tables resulted in a development of power to memorize dates,
the improvement is never equal to that made in the practice
medium itself. In other words, the "indirect" is always less than
the "direct" improvement. A computation showed that "direct"
was worth, on the average, about 144 times "indirect" practice.
Without attaching too much importance to the exact figures, there
is ample evidence that the effects of "direct" outweigh immeas-
urably those of "indirect" training, and differentially that the
schools have occasionally wasted most valuable time.

The inequality of " direct " and " indirect " training in
any single case should be obvious. It should also be obvious
that the importance of transfer is not to be measured in
that way alone.

(3) It must be remembered that the capacity to general-
ize on the basis of limited specific experiences varies among
individuals and that with any given amount of training
given to members of a group the possibility and the extent
of the transfer or spread of improved efficiency are varying
quantities. It must further be recognized that the extent
of transfer to be looked for is in part determined by the
extent to which conditions are made favorable for the
process of dissociation, again varying with respect to indi-
viduals.

The amount and extent of the transfer or spread of im-
proved efficiency may be estimated in one or both of two
ways: (a) through an examination of the results of experi-
mental investigations; (6) through a study of the implica-
tions of general psychological theory. These are considered
in the following sections.

174. The results of experimental investigations. The
mere enumeration of the various experimental investiga-
tions designed to determine the mode and extent of the
transfer or spread of improved efficiency would carry us far

408 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

beyond the limits of space here available. Likewise any
detailed criticism of the methods employed or the conclu-
sions drawn is here impossible. * All that may be attempted
here is a general statement of facts which have apparently
emerged from the several experiments made.

(1) The science of experimental psychology, in spite of
its rapid and promising development within recent years,
is still in its infancy. Hence the tools which experimental
pedagogy must employ are as yet of the crudest.

(2) The experimental facts so far determined are rela-
tively trivial when compared with the facts which must be
determined before we can secure measurements of the trans-
fer or spread of improved efficiency in the case of school
studies or the occupations of life.

(3) The results of experimental investigations are con-
fused and confusing, many being in direct conflict. Taken
together, they resist organization into any clear-cut state-
ment of the extent of the effect of special training on general
ability. In addition faulty methods employed in many cases
quite invalidate the results obtained and the conclusions
drawn.

(4) By far the greater part of the experiments indicate
that the transfer of improved efficiency is a reality. Never-
theless they also indicate that previous assumptions of a
wholesale and automatic transfer are untenable.

These experiments also show, even by their indefinite and con-
fused results, the complexity of the facilitating and interfering
relations amongst man's hierarchies of habits. We see the possi-
bility of a disciplinary effect where superficial observation would
have expected none, the difficulty of transfer in a case where specu-
lative and verbal thinking would have assumed that it was easy,

1 For extended discussion of experiments made the reader is referred to
references given at the close of this chapter, especially, Thorndike, Heck,
Colvin, Judd, Ruediger, Henderson, 'Sleight, Rugg, Coover.

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 409

and, in general, the ignorance that we suffer from concerning the
internal constituents of almost every act of learning.1

(5) In general experiments have suggested the possibility
of interference as well as of transfer.

(6) To date experiments on memories have resulted in
the most satisfactory evidence, indicating in general little
transfer, except as improvement in methods of learning,
etc., is involved.

(7) Experiments have suggested that, even where trans-
fer or spread of improved efficiency is found, its emergence
is not automatic but dependent to a considerable extent on
the methods employed in training.

We may conclude that experimental evidence, while sug-
gestive and indicative that older notions of general disci-
pline are untenable, has as yet done relatively little to deter-
mine either the mode or extent of the transfer or spread of
improved efficiency. We are therefore forced back on the
field of general educational theory to a considerable extent.
However unsatisfactory that may be, for the present we
cannot do otherwise than consider its implications, with
the hope and faith that improved methods of experimental
psychology may soon afford more satisfactory evidence.

175. Implications of psychological theory. In discussing
the method of the operation of the transfer or spread of
improved efficiency it was suggested that it rests on the
process of dissociation. In that connection it was pointed
out that some transfer will take place wherever there is a
real element to be transferred through generalization. It
was also pointed out, however, that if conditions are made
favorable the possibility of generalization and transfer is
increased. It follows, therefore, that transfer in any case is
not a constant and cannot be considered as operating auto-

1 Thorndike, E. L., The Psycliology of Learning, p. 417.

410 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

matically. The resultant emphasis on methods of teaching
and training is great. If these theories are sound it is clear
that the extent of the transfer or spread of improved effi-
ciency is conditioned by at least three factors: (a) the char-
acter of the materials (objective elements) involved; (6) the
capacities of individuals to generalize and subjective ele-
ments brought to situations by individuals; and (c) the
methods of training provided. All of these factors are vari-
able and hence the extent of transfer or spread which de-
pends on them must itself be a variable matter. In this
connection it should be noted that, with respect to the
psychology of learning, any attempt to dissociate materials
from methods of experiencing them is erroneous and useless.
From a pedagogical viewpoint the character of objective
material is inextricably associated with the way in which it
is experienced. Things, objects, ideals, etc., have no mean-
ing for the individual other than as he experiences them.
To say that generalization and transfer has no importance
with respect to the values of educative materials but is
important with respect to method ignores the fact that the
character of materials in part determines methods of train-
ing and that methods of training in part determine the
character of the materials as far as their effect on the indi-
vidual is concerned. An antithesis of materials and methods
is psychologically and pedagogically false.

176. Problem 4: the transfer values of studies. The prob-
lem of the transfer values claimed for various subjects of
study in the secondary-school program is considered in con-
nection with the several studies dealt with in following chap-
ters. The general problem only will be considered in this
section.

In time, it is to be hoped, experimental psychology will
answer our present problem in undebatable terms. At pres-
ent it cannot do so and again we are forced back on the

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 111

implications of general psychological theory. Following the
line of thought suggested in the preceding sections we may
arrive at certain conclusions. The capacity for generaliza-
tion is_natiye in the human mind and is not confined or lim-
ited to any special objective material. Hence it may be
assumed that any kind of material may serve as basis for
generalization and for transfer values. On the other hand,
it has been suggested that the manner in which such material
is organized and presented to the mind is of the highest
importance and in reality the manner of such presentation
cannot be divorced entirely from the character of the
materials with which it is concerned. It has further been
i suggested that the amount of generalization actually accom-
l plished is dependent on the provision for meeting certain
conditions which foster and facilitate dissociation or generai-
j^ization. Subjects of study differ noticeably in the degree in
which their materials may be or have been organized with
respect to those conditions. Thus it is relatively easy to
organize the materials of mathematics so as to facilitate the
dissociation of methods of reflective thinking involved in
problem solving — within the field of mathematics. In his-
tory, on the other hand, manipulation of its materials for
such a purpose within its own field is relatively difficult.
Thus there is a great difference between those two subjects
affecting the conditions which primarily affect generaliza-
tion and dissociation, even within then* own respective
fields. Whatever we may think about the possibility of
transferring those methods to other fields, we must recognize
that it cannot take place unless those original conditions
are met. Thus also it must be recognized that the transfer
of improved efficiency is not automatic and that if it is
desired it must be deliberately sought through the organi-
zation of materials and teaching methods adapted to that
end. Subjects whose primary aims in the secondary school

412 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

look toward specific ends can provide but a limited amount
of transfer values. Subjects of study whose primary pur-
poses are the development of generalized traits can produce
but limited specific values. Subjects of study which aim at
both ends at once are likely to produce limited results in
both. With various subjects of study different ends may,
possibly, be desirable. In passing it may be well to say that
as at present organized and taught few studies are well
adapted to any of those ends.

III. GENERAL ANALYSIS OF THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES

177. The evolution of the program in America. The his-
tory of the development of the program of studies in the
American public secondary school is illuminating in many
ways and affords clear evidence of the shifting values as-
signed in contemporary theory and practice at different
periods. Thus an examination of the data provided in
Table CXVIII shows that three main periods may be rather
definitely described in terms of the prominence attached to
different classes of subject matter. During the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries dominant values in public second-
ary education in this country were attached to the human-
istic studies. During the nineteenth century such human-
istic studies gave way in part to natural sciences, although
retaining much of their former prestige. Toward the close
of the nineteenth century directly vocational studies began
to become important and give signs of becoming increasingly
important at the present time.

A study of the history of the program of studies of the
secondary school shows clearly that the values attached to
different subjects of study have varied at different times.
Thus the study of logic was deemed sufficiently valuable to
be included in the State requirements in Massachusetts from

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 413

TABLE CXVIII. SUBJECTS OF STUDY INTRODUCED AT DIFFERENT
TIMES INTO THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES OF THE PUBLIC SECOND-
ARY SCHOOL OF AMERICA*

English : Reading (1821?), Writing (1821 or 1635), Spelling (1821 or 1635),
Grammar (1821 or 1635), Composition (1821 or 1635), Rhetoric (1823 or
1635), Declamation (1821?), Literature (1821), Forensics (1821), Etymology
(1839), History of English Literature (1841).

Foreign Language: Latin (1635), Greek (1635), French (1826), German
(1838), Spanish (1830), Italian (1843), Anglo-Saxon (1850).

Mathematics: Arithmetic (1814-1821), Algebra (1814-1821), Geometry
(1814-1821), Trigonometry (1814-1821), Surveying (1821), Navigation
(1821), Mensuration (1821), Analytical Geometry (1839), Differential
Calculus (1841).

Sciences: Physics or Natural Philosophy (1821), Chemistry (1826), As-
tronomy (1821), Physiology (1839), Botany (1826), Geology (1837?),
Zoology (1842), Hygiene (1839), Mineralogy (1837?), Natural History
(1833), Meteorology (1852), Mechanics (1839), Physical Geography (1852?),
Anatomy (1837), Technology (1851), Engineering (1852), Medicine and
Surgery (1852?), Household Science (1858), General Science ("Elements of
Arts and Sciences," 1823), Agricultural Chemistry (1845).

Social Sciences: History of the United States (1821), General History
(1823), History of Civilization (1849), Ancient History (1821 or 1635),
Mediaeval History (1842), Modern History (1821), History of England
(1814-1828), History of France (1827?), History of a single Federal State
(1839), Constitution of the United States (1828), Constitution of a single
Federal State (1840), City Government (1842), "Community Civics"
(1849), Political Philosophy (1821), Political Economy (1821), Ancient
Geography (1821 or 1635), Sacred Geography (1823), Modern Geography
(1821), Ethics (1839), Moral Philosophy (1821), Natural Theology (1823),
Evidences of Christianity (1823).

Other Subjects: Logic (1821), Intellectual Philosophy (1829), Bookkeep-
ing (1823), Commerce (1838), Sewing (1840), Stenography (1849), Manual
Training (1880), and all the various vocational and industrial subjects in-
troduced within the past two or three decades; Drawing (1826), Music
(1837).

* Table compiled from numerous sources. The first appearance of many subjects in the
public secondary school is difficult to determine. The above dates are, however, fairly sure.

1827 to 1898. It is seldom if ever found in a secondary-
school program at present. Thus botany, astronomy,
geology, intellectual science (psychology), moral science
(ethics) were required in certain high schools in that State
from 1857 to 1898. Of these some have survived and others

414 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

disappeared. Of all the various subjects mentioned in the
above list of subjects in the program of studies in the public
secondary school and others which should be added to make
the list complete twenty-one enrolled as large a proportion
as five per cent of the total public high-school population
in 1915.

178. The relative prominence of various subjects. While
it is not easy to determine the relative values attached to
the various subjects of study in the secondary-school pro-

TABLE CXIX. PERCENTAGES OF PUPILS IN PUBLIC HIGH
SCHOOLS PURSUING CERTAIN STUDIES *

Subjects of study

1889-
1890

1894-
1895

1899-
1900

1904-
1905

1909-
1910

1914-
1915

Total
number
1914-15

Latin

34.69

43.97

50.61

50.21

49.05

37.32

434,925

3.05

3.10

2.85

1.47

.75

.29

3,351

French

5.84

6.52

7.78

9.14

9.90

8.80

102,516

10.51

11.40

14.33

20.25

23.69

24.39

284,294

.67

2.39

31,743

45.40

54.27

56.29

57.51

56.85

48.84

569,215

21.33

25.34

27.39

28.16

30.87

26.55

309,383

2.53

1.91

1.71

1.87

1 18

17 220

Astronomy

4.79

2.78

1.22

.53

.28

3,224

Physics

22.21

22.77

19.04

15.66

14.61

14.23

165,854

10.10

9.15

7.72

6.76

6.89

7.38

86,031

23.89

23.37

21.62

19.34

14.58

169911

Zoology

8 02

3 21

37456

16.83

9.14

106520

General biology

6.90

80,403

Geology

5.00

3.61

2.34

1.16

.48

5,558

Physiology

29.95

27.42

21.96

15.32

9.48

110,541

Psychology

2.74

2.38

1.81

.96

1.17

13,626

Rhetoric

32.05

38.48

48.54

57.10

58.42

680,871

English literature

42.10

49.34

57.09

55.82

650,613

27 31

34.33

38.16

40.88

55.03

50 54

589,067

Civil government

21.66

17.97

15.55

8.64

100,730

Civics

7.08

82,588

Agriculture

4.66

7.17

83,573

3.78

12 89

150,270

Industrial '.

.81

9,424

Manual training

11.17

130,155

22 87

266 492

Vocal music

31.50

367,188

3.42

39,816

No such figures are accessible for other subjects in the program of studies in the second
ary school.

* Report of the United Stales Commissioner of Education (1910), vol. n, p. 487.

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES

415

18wO 13S5 1300 1905 1010

FIGURE V. ILLUSTRATING TABLE CXIX

gram at present, valuable information (as far as it goes)
may be gained from the data presented in Table CXIX and
in Figure V. Unfortunately the reports of the Federal
Commissioner of Education supply data for certain subjects
of study only, and fail to supply desirable data for other
subjects, especially subjects of a technical, vocational, and
industrial character. It is also unfortunate that the data
available do not afford information in terms of the numbers
and proportions of all pupils who somewhere in then* high-
school courses study the various subjects.

416 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

In interpreting these statistics certain facts should be
noted:

(1) The practice, common to the majority of secondary
schools, of requiring all pupils, or certain groups of pupils,
to study certain subjects, e.g., English, algebra, tends to
raise the proportions of pupils studying those subjects, and
the figures, therefore, cannot be taken as measuring the
appeal of the subjects to pupils.

(2) In some cases the unit of study does not stand out
clearly as a separate subject and hence figures reported fre-
quently represent a number of pupils in excess of those
taking a separate and distinct course in the subject. Thus
possibly with rhetoric or civics.

(3) In some cases the sequential character of the work
in a subject, tending to involve two, three, or four years for
the completion of the subject, gives an appearance of greater
support than would otherwise be indicated. Thus history is
grouped under one title. Latin, engaging about one third of
the pupils in the secondary schools in 1915, may not have
affected more individuals than German, a subject which was
pursued in 1915 by approximately one quarter of all second-
ary-school pupils — Latin at that time commonly compris-
ing a four-year course and German commonly comprising
a two- or three-year course.

(4) Within the past two decades the proportion of pupils
studying any single natural science has apparently de-
creased. Whether or not this means that the total number
of pupils studying natural science in some of its phases has
decreased the figures afford us no means of deciding. In this
connection it should be noted that no figures are presented
in the table above for general science, applied science in
agriculture, etc.

(5) Attempts to determine the proportions of pupils
engaged in the study of "foreign languages," "natural

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 417

science," etc., by adding together the different percentages
of the separate languages, sciences, etc., involve a serious
error and represent no real situation, since a large number of
pupils is engaged in studying two or more languages, two
or more sciences at the same time.

179. The necessity of selection. It is obvious that all the
subjects now found in the program of studies of the second-
ary school cannot and should not be studied by all pupils.
Selection is therefore a necessity and, since it is a necessity,
it follows that some means must be devised to determine the
relative values of the various subjects of study as a basis
for such selection. It was pointed out in the first part of
this chapter that the various subjects of study are to be
evaluated in terms of the degree in which those subjects
contribute to the aims and functions of secondary education.
It was also pointed out that that contribution might be
direct or indirect. One may readily recognize that certain
social studies may contribute directly to the social-civic aim
of secondary education in such a way that the values of
those subjects will be universal and direct. One may readily
recognize that other subjects may contribute directly to the
vocational-economic aim of secondary education in such a
way that the values of those subjects will be direct and lim-
ited or contingent. However, after such analysis of direct
values has been accomplished there still remain in the pro-
gram of studies as at present organized certain subjects
whose values, if they possess important values, cannot be
stated in terms of direct contribution to the aims of second-
ary education and other subjects whose position and popu-
larity in the secondary-school program cannot be justified
by reliance on direct but limited or contingent values. Thus
it cannot be maintained seriously that one hah* of the pupils
in the secondary school in 1910 were justified in studying
Latin on the basis of its direct values. Neither can one jus-

418 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

tify on the grounds of direct values alone the study of Ger-
man by nearly one quarter of the boys and girls in the public
secondary schools. Further, the study of algebra, undoubted
though its limited or contingent direct values are, cannot be
justified for nearly all pupils in the first year of the public
secondary school on the ground of direct values. The same
is the case with geometry.

For some of the subjects now found in the secondary-
school program of studies justification must rest, if justifica-
tion be found, largely on the indirect values which may be
attached to them. In the cases of several other subjects of
study the large proportion of pupils engaged in those sub-
jects cannot be justified on the basis of direct values alone.
To the first group belongs Latin. To the second group be-
long algebra, geometry, and German. The final value of
subjects of study in the program of the secondary school is,
therefore, to be determined by an analysis of the degree in
which the subject may contribute directly or indirectly
to the aims and functions previously outlined. Such an
analysis is attempted for the various subjects in the follow-
ing chapters of this book.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. Consider any community of approximately 50,000 inhabitants. Esti-
mate roughly the proportions of the population who may reasonably
be expected to have direct use for the various subjects of study in the
secondary-school program; e.g., what proportion of the inhabitants will
commonly find opportunity to use algebra or chemistry directly?

2. Make a critical study of experiments which have been made to solve the
problem of transfer of improvement. Interpret the conclusions with
respect to the problem of indirect values in the secondary school. (Cf.
Rugg, Heck, Ruediger, Thorndike, Coover, in list of references.)

8. Find specific examples of arguments for direct values of subjects of
study which involve one or more of the fallacies mentioned in section
165.

4. Choose any subject of study in the program of studies of the secondary
school. Analyze the values commonly claimed for that subject.

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 419

5. Find specific examples of arguments for or against indirect values of
subjects of study which involve one or more of the fallacies mentioned
in section 173.

6. Classify subjects of study in the program of the secondary school ac-
cording to the readiness with which the materials may be or are manip-
ulated for the purpose of facilitating the process of dissociation of any
important element.

7. To what degree is it true that " the acceptance of the fundamental doc-
trine of modern psychology, that there are no faculties in the mind, of
itself necessitated the abandonment of the doctrine of formal training
in education." (Moore, E. C., What is Education? p. 99.)

8. How is the problem of transfer related to the relative values of "pure"
and "applied" science? (Cf. Colvin, S. S., The Learning Process, pp.
247 /.)

9. How is the problem of transfer related to the application of principles,
methods, etc., within any given field of study?

10. Give examples of different subjects of study masquerading under the
same name in the program of study of the secondary school.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Bagley, W. C., Educational Values, especially chaps, vii-xv.

Bagley, W. C., and Snedden, D., "Fundamental Distinctions Between
Liberal and Vocational Education," Proceedings of the National Educa-
tion Association (1914), pp. 150-70.

Colvin, S. S., The Learning Process, chaps, xiv-xvi.

Coover, J. E., Formal Discipline from the Standpoint of Experimental

Psychology, Psychological Monographs, vol. xx, no. 3.
-Davis, C. O., High-School Courses of Study, pp. 12-27.

DeGarmo, C., Principles of Secondary Education, vol. i, "The Studies," pp.
141-78 (new edition).

Gillette, J. M., Vocational Education, chaps, rx-x.

Heck, W. H., Mental Discipline and Educational Values.

Henderson, E. N., A Textbook in the Principles of Education, chap. X.

Judd, C. H., The Psychology of High-School Subjects, chap. xvn.

Moore, E. C., What is Education? especially chap. m.

Parker, S. C., Methods of Teaching in High Schools, chap. n.

Ruediger, W. C., Principles of Education, especially pp. 91-224.

Rugg, H. O., The Experimental Determination of Mental Discipline in School
Studies. Bibliography.

Sleight, W. G., Educational Values and Methods.
-Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education.

Spencer, H., Education, chap, i, "What Knowledge is of Most Worth?"

Thorndike, E. L., The Psychology of Learning, chap. xii.

United States Commissioner of Education, Report (1916), vol. n, pp. 487-528.

Yocum, A. D., Culture, Discipline, and Democracy.

CHAPTER XII

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH IN THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES

I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

1 80. The historic dominance of linguistic and literary
studies. Linguistic and literary studies have tended to
dominate educational institutions from their very beginning.
For the Greeks only, and at certain periods only for them,
would this general statement need to be qualified. In the
later period of Greek education began the emphasis on
linguistic and literary studies which they contributed to
Roman education and which Roman education contrib-
uted to Europe and America. Throughout the medieval
period, the Renaissance, and the Reformation education
in the schools of Europe was almost exclusively linguistic
and literary, and almost exclusively confined to the study
of Latin and Greek. This emphasis on the Latin and Greek
languages and literatures was not surprising, since practically"
all existing knowledge was preserved in those tongues, since
Lathi was the common medium of communication among
the learned, and since literatures in the vernaculars began
only as late as the early Renaissance. Even after the rise
of literatures in the vernaculars, however, secondary edu-
cation was restricted to the study of the classical languages
and literatures with attention here and there only to the
mother tongues and their literatures — a state of affairs
which persisted until long after the beginning of secondary
education in America.

It has already been shown that during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries secondary education in America

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 421

was limited to the study of the Latin and Greek. However,
the practice, common in Europe, of making instruction and
all language use in the secondary school depend on the ac-
tual use of Latin, to the exclusion of the mother tongue, was
never successful and in reality was seldom attempted in the
American secondary school of the colonial period. Trans-
lation was regularly employed and the classical languages
were constantly brought into relation with the mother
tongue. Thus, while it is true that English literature re-
ceived little if any attention in the Latin grammar school
of America, it is a fact that the English language was indi-
rectly a very real study in the colonial secondary school.

With the beginning of the realistic movement in educa-
tion (marked by the beginning of the Realschule in Ger-
many and by the academy movement in England, Scotland,
and America) came the direct study of the native language
and native literature in the secondary school. Through
the academy the study of the English language and litera-
ture was contributed to the public high school in the third
decade of the nineteenth century. From that time the study
of English has constantly increased in the American second-
ary school until at the present time it occupies by far the
most prominent position in the program. Its development
since 1890 may be estimated in part from the figures pre-
sented in Table CXIX and from Figure V.

181. The present status of English in the program. At
the present time English is probably the only study uni-
versally required of all pupils in the secondary school at
some stage or stages within the course. Probably one sixth
of the total time of the high-school course is devoted by
most pupils to the study of the mother tongue and its liter-
ature. In this connection we may note current practice in
Germany and in France. In the last four grades of the Prus-
sian Gymnasium or Realgymnasium 8.6 per cent of the total

422 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

time is specifically devoted to the study of German. In
the Oberrealschule the proportion of time is 10.5 per cent.
German is required of every pupil in every grade of the
higher school in Germany. In France a larger proportionate
amount of time is devoted to the study of French, the per
cent of the total time ranging from 16.4 for Sections A and
B to 19.1 for Section D during grades IV-I. Thus it would
appear that for corresponding grades a larger proportion
of time is devoted to the study of English in the American
secondary school than is devoted to the study of German
in the Prussian higher school, and, possibly, a somewhat
smaller amount of time than is devoted to the study of
French in the French higher school. It should be remem-
bered, however, that both in Germany and France some
foreign language is prescribed for all pupils in the higher
schools — a factor of no small importance.

182. English and the aims of secondary education. The
readiness with which values may be attached to the study
of English as contributing to the ultimate aims of secondary
education tends to permit teachers of English and others to
neglect the necessity of analyzing the various factors in-
volved. In English, as much as in the case of any other sub-
ject, it is necessary to analyze aims, values, materials, and
methods. This is recognized by the Committee on the High-
School Course in English when it states: *

These fundamental aims should be implicit in the teacher's atti-
tude and in the spirit of the class work: (a) Cultural. To open to
the student new and higher forms of pleasure. (6) Vocational. To
fit the student for the highest success in his chosen calling, (c) So-
cial and ethical. To present to the student noble ideals, aid in the
formation of his character, and make him more efficient and

1 National Education Association, Report of the Committee on the High-
School Course in Ejiglish, pp. 7, 5. Cf. Reorganization of English in Sec-
ondary Schools, Report by the National Joint Committee on English,
Bureau of Education Bulletin (1917), no. 2, pp. 30-32.

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 423

actively interested In his relations with and service to others in the
community and in the nation.

The Committee believes that a single statement of aims will
prove serviceable as a guide to the English work of all schools.
Stated broadly, it should be the purpose of every English teacher,
first, to quicken the spirit and kindle the mind and imagination of
his pupils and to develop habits of weighing and judging human
conduct, with the hope of leading them to higher living; second, to
supply the pupils with an effective tool for use in then- future pri-
vate and public life, i.e., the best command of language which,
under the circumstance, can be given them.

The particular results to be sought may be somewhat specifically
indicated as follows:

In general, the immediate aim of secondary English is twofold:

(a) To give the students command of the art of expression in
speech and writing.

(b) To teach them to read thoroughly and with appreciation,
to form in them a taste for good reading, and to teach
them how to find books that are worth while.

These two aims are fundamental; they must be kept in mind in
planning the whole course and applied in the teaching of every
term.

These recommendations are here presented in some detail
for the special purpose of suggesting that the analysis of aims
in teaching English as stated by so important and represent-
ative a body as a national committee is far from adequate.
The immediate aims of the teaching of English as thus
stated are far too narrow and leave out of account values
and purposes if anything more fundamental than those sug-
gested or implied. Thus in aim (a) emphasis is placed on
" the art of expression " as the primary aim in teaching
language. Language is far more important as an instrument
by the use of which the individual's higher mental processes
themselves are aided — as an instrument conditioning his
very thinking — than as an instrument by which he may
communicate his thought. Language is a tool conditioning
thinking as well as a tool for communicating thought and its

424 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

use for thinking is prior to its use for expression. Thus also
in aim (6) as stated (except as may be involved in the am-
biguous phrase " thoroughly and with appreciation ") factors
other than those contributing to culture and literary appre-
ciation are almost if not quite lacking in emphasis. The
point of these criticisms will appear more clearly in the fol-
lowing sections of this chapter.

183. The aims of language and of literature distinguished.
It is in many ways unfortunate that the study of language
and the study of literature have been grouped under the one
head " English " in the program of the secondary school.
However much the two fields of study may be correlated in
teaching, however much they may depend upon and con-
tribute to each other, the values, aims, and methods of the
two studies are as widely separate as of any two studies in the
program. The values and aims of language study in the
secondary school center around the development of ability
to use language as a tool and methods of teaching should be
determined thereby. Commonly this is stated to mean the
development of an ability to express one's own thought and
to understand the thought of others as expressed in oral or
written speech. Any such statement emphasizes the func-
tion of language as a medium for communication and fails
to recognize the fundamental fact that language is not
merely a medium for the communication of thought, but
a condition and tool for the thinking process itself. On the
other hand, the values and aims of the study of literature
center around the aesthetic elements of form, the moral-
social elements of content, and the avocational elements of
reading habits. True it is that the study of language is
closely related to the study of literature, but it is also true
that it is closely related to practically every other subject
of study in the program.

Failure to recognize the distinct and separate values and

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 425

aims of language study and the study of literature consti-
tutes one of the most serious difficulties in the teaching of
English in the secondary school. On the one hand it results
in a tendency to minimize the study of language or to deal
with it incidentally in connection with the study of litera-
ture. On the other hand it results sometimes in making a
piece of literature merely a basis of linguistic study, thus
interfering with the attainment of the separate aims of the
study of literature.

n. THE AIMS AND VALUES OF THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE

184. The relation of language to thought. From what-
ever point of approach we consider the problem of language
values and language aims, we face at once the problem of
the relation of language to thought. The relation of lan-
guage to the communication of thought is readily recog-
nized. Therein is found the origin of articulate language.
However, with the development of language use it became
an instrument not only for the communication of thought
but also for thinking itself. Created primarily for the pur-
pose of acquainting others with the mental states of the
individual language has become the means by which the
individual's own mental life is fundamentally conditioned.
In its broadest sense " language " connotes more than verbal
symbols alone and must be conceived as including every sign
consciously employed to convey meaning. Notwithstanding
this extended meaning of the term language, however, it is
true that the dominant factor in language for adults is verbal
imagery of some sort. Thus Dewey says: l

The chief intellectual classifications that constitute the working cap-
ital of thought have been built up for us by our matlier tongue.

1 Dewey, J., How We Think, p. 175. The best general statement of the
relation of language to thought is found in that book, especially in chap,
xm. The extracts quoted are copyrighted by the publishers, D. C. Heath
and Company, and are quoted with their permission.

426 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

So important is this conception of the relation of lan-
guage to the process of thinking and so important is the
bearing of that relation on the study of the mother tongue
we may follow Dewey in further analysis and attempt
to discover what functions language performs in assisting
thought and its communication.

(1) In relation to individual meanings verbal symbols
perform three important functions:

(a) They select and detach meanings from what are
otherwise confused and confusing blurs. The appropriate
naming of anything is closely related to the identification of
that thing — so closely that there is a necessary parallelism
between the development of vocabulary and the develop-
ment of clearly defined percepts, concepts, feelings of mean-
ing, and the like. The development of individual meanings
cannot proceed very far without the development of the
corresponding vocabulary.

(6) Verbal symbols register and preserve meanings which
would otherwise be limited to situations of direct contact:

Since intellectual life depends on the possession of a store of
meanings, the importance of language as a tool of preserving mean-
ings cannot be overstated. To be sure, the method of storage is
not wholly aseptic; words often corrupt and modify the meanings
they are supposed to keep intact, but liability to infection is a price
paid by every living thing for the privilege of living.1

When a meaning is detached and fixed by a sign, it is possible to
use that meaning in a new context and situation. This transfer and
reapplication is the key to all judgment and inference [without
which] no cumulative growth of intelligence would occur; experi-
ence might form habits of physical adaptation but it would not
teach anything, for we should not be able to use a prior experience
consciously to anticipate and regulate further experience. To be

1 Dewey, J., op. cit., p. 174.

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 427

able to use the past to judge and infer the new and unknown implies
that, although the past thing has gone, its meaning abides in such
a way as to be applicable in determining the character of the new.
Speech forms are our great carriers: the easy-running vehicles by
which meanings are transported from experiences that no longer
concern us to those that are as yet dark and dubious.1

(2) In relation to the organization of meanings verbal
symbols perform equally important functions:

Signs not only mark off specific or individual meanings, but they
are also instruments of grouping meanings in relation to one an-
other. Words are not only names or titles of single meanings; they
also form sentences in which meanings are organized in relation to
one another. . . . Propositions, sentences, bear the same relation
to judgments that distinct words, built up by analyzing proposi-
tions in their various types, bear to meanings or conceptions; and
just as words imply a sentence, so a sentence implies a larger whole
of consecutive discourse into which it fits.2

Meager though this statement of the functions of lan-
guage is, it is sufficient to emphasize the view, frequently
minimized, or totally ignored, that language is an instru-
ment even more important for the individual's thinking than
for the expression of his thought or for his understanding
of the thoughts of others expressed through language. The
point cannot be too strongly enforced that language is an
instrument on which must depend the individual's actual
thinking process to a very considerable extent. Any method
of teaching English which minimizes that fact is fundamen-
tally at fault, and any course of study in English which sub-
ordinates the relationing of language to thought is open to
severe criticism.

185. The aims and values of the study of language. The

values of the study of one's mother tongue are twofold,

being found in the use of language (1) as an instrument by

which the individual's thinking is facilitated and condi-

1 Dewey, J., op. cit., pp. 174-75. 2 Ibid., p. 175.

428 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

tioned, and (2) as a medium of communication between
individuals. Failure to recognize properly the first of these
values and the tendency to devote attention almost exclu-
sively to the second constitutes one of the most serious de-
fects in the teaching of the mother tongue in the secondary
school. " Teaching pupils to express themselves in speech and
writing" is psychologically dependent on and pedagogically
subordinate to the process of making language an effective
instrument for the individual's own intellectual enterprises.
The early stages of language development are affected
extensively by the necessity of providing an instrument suit-
able for the ordinary affairs of everyday life and especially
involve " practical " and social uses. Gradually, however,
must become more and more prominent the need of language
as an intellectual instrument. Hence Dewey's statements: 1

This distinction of the practical and social from the intellectual
use of language throws much light on the problem of the school in
respect to speech. That problem is to direct pupils' oral and written
speech, used primarily for practical and social ends, so that gradually
it shall become a conscious tool of conveying knowledge and assisting
thought. How without checking the spontaneous natural motives —
motives to which language owes its vitality, force, vividness, and
variety — are we to modify speech habits so as to render them
accurate and flexible intellectual instruments? It is comparatively
easy to encourage the original spontaneous flow and not to make
language over into a servant of reflective thought; it is compara-
tively easy to check and almost destroy (so far as the schoolroom
is concerned) native aim and interest, and to set up artificial and
formal modes of expression in some isolated and technical matters.
The difficulty lies in making over habits that have to do with
"ordinary affairs and conveniences" into habits concerned with
"precise notions."

Proper recognition of the importance of language use as
related to the individual's own mental development should
indicate the fallacy of those who state that the language
1 Dewey, J., op. cit., pp. 179-80.

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 429

tool should or can be acquired by the end of the elementary-
school period. The mechanics of language use, i.e., the
ability to recognize groups of letters as familiar and to utter
certain sounds when those symbols are seen in reading, the
ability to put together certain letter symbols in response to
specified auditory stimuli in spelling, the ability to make
certain motor responses in writing, etc., — all those abilities
may, perhaps, be well acquired by the close of the element-
ary-school period. However, the far more fundamental
abilities of relating verbal symbols and word uses to
thought can never be acquired hi anything like adequate
form within that period. These abilities should, of course,
begin at the earliest stages. They continue to be funda-
mental, or even increase in importance, as education pro-
ceeds. They are of predominant importance in the second-
ary school.

186. Language as an intellectual instrument. Involved
in the development of language both as an instrument of
thought and for the transmission of thought are three
elements or processes: (1) the development of the capital
stock of words — the extensive development of vocabulary;
this is inextricably related to (2) the development of in-
creased precision and accuracy in the use of words as related
to thought — the intensive development of vocabulary;
this again is inextricably related to (3) the development
of habits of interrelating those words so as to facilitate
consecutive thinking and consecutive discourse. Each of
these elements deserves attention as involved in the study
of language in the secondary school.

(1) The extensive development of vocabulary : The proper
development of vocabulary comes with extended experience
with tilings and persons and the acquiring of words cor-
rectly related thereto, or by experiencing the use of words
in contexts.

430 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

To grasp by either method a word in its meaning is to exercise
intelligence, to perform an act of intelligent selection or analysis,
and it is also to widen the fund of meanings or concepts readily
available for further intellectual enterprises.1

The greater the number of words really associated with their
appropriate percepts, concepts, feelings of meaning, and the
like, which are available, the greater is the possibility of
organizing and expressing thought: the more limited the
stock of words available, the more limited must be the possi-
bility of thought and its expression.

This is far from meaning, however, that extensive vocab-
ulary alone is sufficient to guarantee any great amount of
ability to think or to express thought. Extensive thinking
without extensive vocabulary is impossible. Extensive vo-
cabulary without extensive thinking is quite possible and
very common. This arises on the one hand from the fact
that verbal symbolic imagery tends constantly to outstrip
the concrete imagery without ultimate reference to which
the verbal symbol must always remain vague, general, and
ill-defined. It arises on the other hand from the fact that
the " passive vocabulary " tends constantly to outstrip the
" active vocabulary." By " passive vocabulary " is meant
here that portion of one's vocabulary which consists of
words recognized as more or less familiar and carrying some
meaning of a vague and general character when experienced
in a context or situation where other elements lend at least
some temporary clue to the meaning, but which carry little
or no meaning in isolation and cannot be employed by the
individual in handling or expressing his own thought. It is
a task of education to prevent this " passive vocabulary "
from remaining passive and to make it a real instrument of
thought and expression. On the other hand, there is every
evidence that, as commonly conducted, education in the
1 Dewey, J., op. cii., p. 180.

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 431

school tends to foster the development of a " passive vocab-
ulary " or even to develop an "expression vocabulary " which
is far from being closely related to the thought elements for
which it should stand. By the close of the elementary-school
period, if not long before, there is manifest a tendency for
pupils to associate words with words rather than with the
concrete realities for which they stand or the elements of
thought to which they should be related. There can be no
doubt that it is one of the foremost aims of teaching in the
school to prevent this mechanizing of language and to estab-
lish proper language-thought relations. This means the
extension (or correction) of vocabulary with real relation
to the mental state supposedly represented. Any other
extension of vocabulary is actually harmful rather than
helpful.

(2} The intensive development of vocabulary : Discovering
and naming differing experiences is the basis of vocabulary
development. Precision and accuracy in thinking and in
the expression of thought is vitally conditioned by precision
and accuracy in word uses. Increase in the precise and
accurate use of words is no less important than the increase
in the number of words more or less at one's command.
In fact it is largely through increased differentiation in dis-
covering and naming meanings that the extensive devel-
opment of vocabulary becomes possible.

The pupil enters the secondary school with a fairly ex-
tensive vocabulary already acquired — acquired in the
sense that he has already come into contact with a large
number of words so that he may recognize them in a context
or even employ them in certain word-word associations. His
symbolic imagery has far outstripped his concrete imagery
and his " passive vocabulary " is out of all proportion to his
" active vocabulary." On the whole, his vocabulary is char-
acterized by generality, vagueness, indefiniteness, or even

432 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

error. However extensive his vocabulary may be, unless it
is characterized by precision and accuracy and definiteness
in use for thinking and expression, it must fail to be an
efficient instrument for those processes, and must lead to
looseness and error in thinking.

Vagueness disguises the unconscious mixing together of differ-
ent meanings and facilitates the substitution of one meaning for
another, and covers up the failure to have any precise meaning at
all. It is the aboriginal logical sin — the source from which flow
most bad intellectual consequences.1

The first meanings of terms, since they are due to superficial
acquaintance with things, are general in the sense of being vague.
. . . Such vagueness tends to persist and to become a barrier to the
advance of thinking. Terms that are miscellaneous in scope are
clumsy tools at best; in addition they are frequently treacherous,
for their ambiguous reference causes us to confuse things that
should be distinguished.2

It has long been recognized that our feelings aroused
through the senses (percepts, etc., when identified or inter-
preted in connection with previous experiences) are at first
vague, general, ill-defined, and that with a series of subse-
quent experiences only do they become clear, specific, defin-
ite, well-defined, clear-cut and precise percepts, etc., which
have gradually emerged into clearness out of their original
hazy and foggy condition. So terms (the symbolic images
standing for those percepts, etc.) only gradually emerge
into clearness and definiteness out of their original vague-
ness and generality. The two processes — development of
percepts, etc., and development of related vocabulary —
are so closely related that neither process can proceed far
without the other. The two proceed by climbing on each
other's shoulders. As the relation between percepts and
vocabulary develops, so develops the relation between con-
cepts or general notions and their corresponding symbolic
1 Dewey, J., op. cit., p. 130. 2 Ibid., p. 182.

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 433

images — general words or names — and so develops the
relation between feelings of abstraction, feelings of relation-
ship, etc., and their corresponding terms. Finally, without
such development the complex processes of selective think-
ing are impossible.

(3) The development of habits of consecutive thinking and
consecutive discourse : Aside from what we may call the
" intrinsic " meaning of a word — the relatively constant
element of the fundamental root idea (that which makes
it possible for us to recognize a term in different contexts) -
there is always in actual use what we may call an " extrin-
sic " meaning — the varying element attached to the con-
stant element or root idea as a modification of it when
used contextually in relation to other terms (that which
makes it possible for us to use the same word with some-
what different shades of meaning determined by its sur-
roundings). As a matter of fact, seldom, if ever, does the
same term (the auditory, visual, motor, or other image)
carry the same meaning in any two different contexts, and
therefore the readiness with which varying meanings may
be attached to the same term is the real desideratum both
for thinking and for the expression of thought. The develop-
ment of a rather extensive vocabulary in which the intrinsic
meanings of terms are fairly adequate is a relatively simple
task and one which may possibly be accomplished through
elementary education. The development of an extensive
vocabulary in which the extrinsic meanings of terms are
adequately mastered is an extremely difficult task of great
importance in secondary education. This can be accom-
plished only by constant practice in the organization of
consecutive thinking and consecutive discourse.

187. The dominant purposes of language studies. If the
assumptions outlined at some length in the preceding sec-
tions are sound, it follows that the language studies of the

434 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

secondary school should find their fundamental values and
primary aims in the development of ability to employ lan-
guage as an instrument of thinking and thereby as an instru-
ment for the expression of thought. Such, therefore, should
be the primary aim of the teaching of composition, and
all elements which may be involved in the teaching of that
subject should be considered of minor importance. Such
also should be the aim in teaching those portions of grammar
and rhetoric which may be justified in secondary education.
With these criteria in mind there should be little danger that
an all-embracing study of formal grammar would usurp the
place of functional or applied grammar, or that an elabo-
rately formal rhetoric would carry the study of that subject
far beyond the legitimate limits of its applications in the
secondary school.

The study of language in the secondary school should in
all cases be dominated by the conception that only exercise
in the use of language can achieve the desired aims. Some
knowledges about language are legitimate aids and many
lend a stimulating interest to its study. No excuse can be
found, however, for the practice at present common of
emphasizing information about language and minimizing
training in the use of language.

188. Limitations of the study of the mother tongue. Un-
questioned though the importance of the study of language
is, it must be recognized that in the development of the
ability to use one's mother tongue as a tool for thinking
and for communicating thought the study of English suffers
certain important limitations, most of which center around
the difficulty of making over habits that have to do with
" ordinary affairs and conveniences " into habits which are
concerned with "precise notions." Here several considera-
tions may be adduced.

(1) In the development of speech use there comes a time

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 435

when the use of one's mother tongue for expression and in-
terpretation (especially in reading) becomes so mechanical
that the very facility with which one employs the language
constitutes the greatest barrier to interfere with its further
extension and its transformation from an instrument for
ordinary use into an instrument for precise and accurate
thinking and expression. The laws of habit tend inevitably
to confirm the practice of grasping the general meaning of an
expression seen in print or heard and of utilizing somewhat
stereotyped expressions which but partially and approxi-
mately convey the correct thought. Attention sinks to a
low level and the conscious relationing of words to thought
is minimized. Mental inertia leads to following the line of
least resistance and results in the individual taking the eas-
ier path around rather than the more effortful path through
the thinking process. Comparison, contrast, and selection,
necessary for the development of vocabulary and language
habits if they are to be made more precise and accurate, are
not forced on the individual when employing his own lan-
guage where its facile use permits looseness and vagueness.

(2) Closely related to the previous consideration, if not
really a part of it, is the fact that our methods of education,
with emphasis on the printed page, and the ordinary usages
of everyday life tend to foster the development of an ex-
tensive vocabulary, portions of which consist of words and
expressions whose interpretation for the individual depends
largely, if not wholly, in the context in which they occur
and which have such vague and ill-defined meanings for him
that they are practically useless as instruments for inde-
pendent thiiiking and expression. Here belong the passive
vocabulary previously mentioned and a large number of
terms which have but symbol-symbol associations and
almost entirely lack symbol-thought associations.

(3) In the preceding section attention was called to the

fact that the development of language-use as an instru-
ment for thinking and expressing thought is dependent on
rendering terms more precise and more accurate and on the
ordering or relationing of terms in connected thought and
connected discourse. The most important study for the
accomplishment of that purpose is composition. Yet it is
particularly in the teaching of composition that the greatest
difficulties are encountered in utilizing the English language
to transform the use of that language from an instrument for
the ordinary affairs and conveniences of everyday life to an
instrument for precise and accurate thinking. The only way
in which terms (in their intrinsic and extrinsic meanings)
may be rendered more precise and accurate is through the
constantly refining process of comparison, contrast, and
selection of terms whose connotation and denotation more
or less overlap. Such a process involves selective thinking
(reasoning) which can only arise when there is a felt diffi-
culty and can take place only when an attempt is made to
solve that difficulty. But in composition it is by no means
easy to render conditions favorable to that process of selec-
tive thinking which is necessary if effective comparison,
contrast, and selection of terms are to be achieved. In the
secondary school composition ordinarily means one of two
things — either an attempt on the part of the pupil to
" compose " an essay or theme out of whole cloth on a topic
assigned or chosen, or to take a given piece of writing which
he is to imitate or " reproduce " in expanded or constricted
form. Imitative writing has nothing whatever to do with
the present problem. Reproduction as far as exact thought
is involved is a total impossibility in the same language.
In any case it is extremely difficult if not impossible for the
teacher to control or even to know the thought and vocabu-
lary of the pupil clearly enough to enable him to direct the
process of their interrelation. In writing a composition the

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 437

pupil comes to a point where the right word to express his
half -formed thought does not at once come to him. Does
the pupil then enter on a process of reflective thinking in-
volving comparison, contrast, and the selection of the right
word? Barrie's Tommy is a rare exception and in nine cases
out of ten the pupil follows the line of least resistance, walks
around the boulder in his way, revamps his thought to meet
the narrow confines of his customary vocabulary, and the
opportunity for improvement is forever lost. Able to know
the pupil's thought only as it may be expressed the teacher
is powerless to prevent such " side-stepping " practice on the
part of the pupil, can judge only the composition as written
(or spoken), and hence can to a limited degree only control
the relating of terms and language to the thought process
on the part of the pupil.1

(4) It scarcely needs to be mentioned here that the study
of language in the school is seriously handicapped by the
fact that the use of language outside the school is so loose
that it is extremely difficult through the English class to
overcome the laxity of language-thought relating in the
ordinary use of the language outside the school. The study
of one's own language does not compel conscious attention
to the language-thought relation without which conditions
are unfavorable for the transformation of language as a tool
for ordinary social use into a tool for precise and accurate
thinking.

(5) Even within the school the teaching of language
suffers serious limitations. Habit formation demands as
one of its essential conditions that associations suffer few
exceptions. Whatever habits may be successfully fostered
in the English class they are commonly counteracted by
interfering conditions in other classes. Unless the work hi

1 Space limits attention here to written composition only. Oral com-
position suffers the same limitations.

438 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

English is closely correlated with the work of other classes,
unless the relation of language and thought is carefully
attended to in the study of other subjects, the constructive
work of the English class will be in great part offset by the
destructive work in other classes. The teaching of language
usage is primarily the work of the English teacher. It is also
an important part of the work of every other teacher.

Of the limitations for teaching language through the
medium of the English class the first three mentioned are
of great importance in connection with the study of foreign
languages. The position will be taken in Chapter XIII
that the most general and fundamental values of the study
of foreign languages in the American secondary school are
found in connection with the language-thought relation and
serve to aid the study of English at the points where the
limitations of the latter are greatest.

III. THE AIMS AND VALUES OF THE STUDY OP
LITERATURE

189. Literature and the social-civic aim of education.
Whenever we deal with the social-civic aim of secondary
education we deal with an aim which is general and uni-
versal. Hence, whatever study contributes directly or
indirectly to the attainment of the social-civic aim must
be conceived as offering general and universal values.
Here the study of literature is of value in two related ways :
(a) it affords contact with human experiences and human
conduct in complete variety; (6) by bringing pupils into
contact with the experiences, traditions, conventions, and
customs of society it possesses great integrating values.

In a very important sense literature is to be conceived as
a social-science study in the secondary school, when prop-
erly conducted occupying a position by no means inferior

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 439

to that of history, economics, and civics. History deals
primarily with group experiences and economics or sociology
with abstract principles. Civics and literature both reach the
field of individual conduct, but start from opposite extremes,
literature dealing predominantly with individual conduct
and having little to do with the formal duties of citizenship.
With the thousand and one phases of everyday behavior
history, sociology, and economics have little or nothing to
do. Even civics hi its broadest sense has relatively little to
do with those phases of life's activities. On the other hand
that is exactly the field where literature, in its broadest and
best sense, reigns supreme. The experiences which go to
determine the individual's action and conduct in the ordi-
nary affairs of life may be provided directly or vicariously.
One's environment must needs limit the direct experiences:
the vicarious experiences may be provided through reading
and are limited only by the opportunities and acquired hab-
its of reading. The study of literature, properly conducted,
may and should extend the range of one's experiences far
beyond the limits of one's immediate environment.

Turning our attention in a somewhat different direction
we may note that the study of literature may be made a
powerful factor for social integration. The dominant ideals
of any society, its traditions, its thought, its customs, its life
are embodied in its literature. Acquaintance with national
or racial literature has something more than merely conven-
tional value. It has value as instilling in the individual all
that has gone to make a society what it is and of creating in
him unconsciously its own ideals, thought, and aspirations.
The spiritual inheritance of the race is best conveyed to the
pupil through the study of its literature.

190. Literature and the economic-vocational aim. Liter-
ature, as any other subject of study in the secondary-school
program, may become a vocational subject for certain indi-

440 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

viduals. It is to be noted, however, that as a vocational
study in the secondary school literature can have but lim-
ited values and, indeed, it may well be that attention to the
vocational values of literature is entirely out of place there.
Certainly this must be so save in very few cases.

If the limited vocational values of the study of literature
in the secondary school were fully recognized in high-school
teaching, further consideration of literature in connection
with the economic-vocational aim would be superfluous.
Attention was called above to the fallacy of failing to dis-
tinguish between values of production, accomplishment, or
technical knowledge and values of consumption, utilization,
or appreciation. This fallacy is not without exemplification
in the teaching of English literature which is preeminently
a subject whose dominant values are those of utilization
and appreciation. No justification can be found for the
extensive attention paid in many schools to the formal side
of literature and to literary technique.

191. Literature and the individualistic-avocational aim.
Probably no other study in the secondary-school program
can compete with literature as a study contributing to
the individualistic-avocational aim of secondary education.
Two thousand years ago Cicero praised literature as a source
of enjoyment suited to all times, all ages, and all places as
contrasted with other sources of enjoyment of more limited
scope. To-day his praise may be extended to apply to all
individuals as well. As a universal source of enjoyment for
the utilization of leisure literature affords universal values
which cannot be neglected. The increasing amount of
leisure afforded the individual and the increasing facilities
for " reading " make the study of literature of constantly
increasing importance in the secondary school. People will
read : what practically all people will do they must be trained
how best to do. Assuming that people will read, the question

441

becomes important as to what they will read and how they
will read.

In the field of literature the social-civic and the individ-
ualistic-avocational aims of secondary education meet. In
considering the latter aim the point was made that from a
social viewpoint the aim of the secondary school to afford
preparation for the enjoyment of life is negative in the sense
that it purposes not so much to build up civilization as to
prevent its impairment. In the case of teaching literature
for its individualistic-avocational values the aim must be to
develop such standards of taste and appreciation as may
afford enjoyment to the individual without allowing those
values to interfere with the social-civic values of the study.
The tremendous influence of modern literature on the indi-
vidual has created a problem which cannot safely be neg-
lected by the secondary school. Some, perhaps much, of
that literature is good and valuable. Much also is bad and
harmful. Which of the two sorts will prove strong influences
in the lives of secondary-school pupils may be determined
in part by the study of literature in the school. To expect
such study wholly to determine this is to expect the impossi-
ble. To attempt to establish too high a standard (especially
from the artistic and aesthetic viewpoints) is in many cases
to defeat the very purpose aimed at.

Have we not here the criteria of materials to be intro-
duced in the secondary school for the study of literature?
Two important values are to be attained: (a) the social-
civic values (including moral values) , and (&) the individu-
alistic-avocational values (including aesthetic values). Such
pieces of literature as may be made the object of study in
the secondary-school course must conform to one or both
of those values. Pieces of literature introduced primarily
for their social-civic values must secondarily possess indi-
vidualistic-avocational values or be balanced by others

442 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

designed to produce such values. Pieces of literature intro-
duced primarily for their individualistic-avocational values
must secondarily possess social-civic values or at least be
such as do not tend to counteract social-civic influences.
Any course in literature which subordinates either of the
two principal aims of the study is faulty. The maximum of
values will accrue when a proper balance is maintained be-
tween the two values.

One point further requires attention before this topic is
left. Since the main values of the study of literature as con-
tributing to the social-civic aim are to be found in the influ-
ence of its content and since the main values of its study as
contributing to the individualistic-avocational aim of sec-
ondary education are to be found in the development of a
sense of enjoyment in reading and taste in the choice of such
reading, it would appear to follow that in all cases highly
formal study and attention to the technique of literature
should be subordinated to those more important values.
The study of literary technique, except within such limit?
as obviously affect the general appreciation of literature, has
no place in the study of literature in the secondary school.
The aesthetics of style, when carried beyond the elements
and made an important part of the work in literature, bene-
fit a few exceptional pupils, but seriously encroach on much
more important phases of the work for the vast majority of
pupils. It must be constantly in the mind of the teacher of
literature that the values of utilization and appreciation are
dominant in that subject and that high-school pupils are to
be trained to utilize and appreciate literature, not to pro-
duce it, to become intelligent consumers of literature, not
producers nor yet even literary critics. The former function
is general and universal : the latter is extremely limited and
restricted.

192. Criticism of English study as now organized. To

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 443

criticize the general economy of the study of English in the
American secondary school is to criticize as many economies
as there are schools and is therefore hopeless except in the
most general terms. Nevertheless, a number of important
points deserve some attention.

(1) There is a grave tendency in many quarters to mini-
mize the study of the language and to give disproportionate
attention to the study of literature. The adequate teaching
of language is an extremely difficult task. The teaching of
literature sometimes appears easy. The one task is relatively
irksome both to pupil and to teacher: the other is relatively
pleasant. The one apparently exhibits rather indefinite and
intangible results not readily measured or observed: the
other exhibits rather definite and tangible results, somewhat
readily measured and observed. The line of least resistance
favors the greater attention to literature and in the average
school the study of language per se suffers in consequence.
For this there is no justification.

(2) A second tendency commonly manifested is that of
emphasizing certain formal phases of the use of language
for expression, a failure adequately to recognize the impor-
tance of the study of language as an instrument for thinking
itself, and hence a failure to emphasize values which are
fundamental even to the values of language for expression.

(3) The proportionate attention to either of the two im-
portant aims of the study of literature (social-civic and indi-
vidualistic-avocational) tends toward an overemphasis on
the individualistic-avocational side and toward a relative
neglect of the social-civic side. An overemphasis in either
direction is undesirable.

(4) Apparently the tendency is constant to overempha-
size the formal side of literature at the risk of failing to
arouse in the majority of pupils that abiding liking for
" reading " which is the special purpose of the individualistic-

444 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

avocational aim of the study of literature in the secondary
school.

(5) However much teachers in the secondary school may
recognize the validity of the abstract proposition that re-
sponsibility for language work is theirs as well as the English
teacher's, their practice is far from recognizing the respon-
sibility. Until that proposition is as thoroughly recognized
in practice as it is in theory the adequate teaching of the
English language cannot be attained.

(6) In view of the general and universal values of the study
of English a serious question arises when it is proposed that
in certain courses (especially in vocational courses and vo-
cational schools) attempts are made to substitute applied
forms of English in special fields, e.g., " business English,"
for more general courses.* If the moral-social, the integrat-
ing, and the avocational values of the study of literature are
sound, if the fundamental values of the study of language as
an instrument for thinking and for the expression of thought
are valid, there can be no justification for their elimination
in favor of " applied forms " of English. Wherever such
forms as " business English," etc., are justified, they must
be justified primarily on the basis of vocational studies and
not as taking the place of studies which have an entirely
different aim — social-civic or individualistic-avocational.

(7) Probably the greatest loss of efficiency in the study of
English in the American secondary school results from the
failure on the part of school officers, teachers, and pupils to
distinguish carefully between the aims and values of the
various phases of the work included under the ambiguous
term " English." In the preceding analysis of aims and
values it has been pointed out that a number of quite differ-
ent purposes are involved in the different phases of work in
the study of " English." That numerous interrelations are
legitimate between these different phases is clear and it is

THE PLACE OF ENGLISH 445

true that correlation and cooperation are eminently desir-
able. It is nevertheless true that failure to distinguish be-
tween the primary aims and values of the study of language
per se, the study of literature for social-civic ends, and the
study of literature for individualistic ends, etc., leads to
confusion in the study of " English " in the average second-
ary school. The gravest error here is that frequently noted
in the burdening of the study of literature with detailed
language analysis and with elaborately formal study of the
technique of literary composition. In the average "English "
class the teacher either fails to analyze the special values to
be emphasized in the particular phase of work involved or
attempts to meet too many aims and to develop too many
values at the same time.

•

PROBLEMS FOB FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. What are the arguments for and against the separation of language and
literature studies in secondary-school English? (Cf. Snedden, D.,
Problems of Secondary Education, pp. 171 jf.)

2. What differences in teaching would follow from the organization of
language courses in English designed to emphasize the use of language
as an instrument for the pupils' thinking rather than to emphasize his
ability in expression ?

3. Devise methods of testing a pupil's "passive" and "active" vocabu-
laries.

4. Make a study of the relative proportions of time now devoted to lan-
guage and literature studies in a number of different high schools.

5. What means might be devised to emphasize the relationing of language
use to thought in English composition?

6. What are the arguments for and against the study of "formal gram-
mar"?

7. What are the arguments for and against the study of logic in the second-
ary school?

8. Make a list of books for high-school reading which would emphasize
both social and avocational values.

9. Analyze the books now commonly read in the public high schools in
terms of the values suggested in this chapter.

10. Devise methods of determining the character of pupils' vocabularies
on entrance to the secondary school.

446 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

11. Consider the various scales for measuring English composition with
reference to the degree in which they measure the language-thought
relations emphasized in this chapter.

12. Consider the various "reading tests" with reference to language-
thought relations.

13. Apply various "opposites tests," "part-whole tests," "genus-species
tests, " etc., to secondary-school pupils. (Cf . Whipple, G. M., Manual
of Mental and Physical Tests.)

SELECTED REFERENCES

Bates, A., Talks on the Teaching of Literature.

Bolenius, E., Teaching Literature in the Grammar Grades and High School.

Brown, R. W., How the French Boy Learns to Write.

Campagnac, E. T., The Teaching of Composition.

Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T., and Scott, F. N., The Teaching of English
in Elementary and Secondary School, especially pp. 3-66, 188-292.

Chubb, P., The Teaching of English in the Elementary and the Secondary
Schod, especially pp. 235-50, 371-95.

Dewey, J., How We Think, especially chap. xin.

Fairchild, A. H. R., Teaching Poetry in the High School.

Farrington, F. E., French Secondary Schools, pp. 187-212 ("The Teaching
of French in French Secondary Schools").

Hall, G. S., Educational Problems, vol. n, pp. 397-492.

Hinsdale, B. A., Teaching the Language Arts.

Huey, E. B., The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading, chaps, v-vin, xix.

Judd, C. H., The Psychology of High-School Subjects, pp. 133-210.

Klapper, P., The Teaching of English.

National Education Association, Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary
School Studies, pp. 86-95 (Bureau of Education edition).

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization of
Secondary Education, and the National Council of Teachers of English,
Report by the National Joint Committee, Reorganization of English in
Secondary Schools, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1917) no. 2.

Neal, R. W., Thought-Building in Composition.

O'Shea, M. V., Linguistic Development and Education, especially pp. 124-97.

Russell, J. E., German Higher "Schools, pp. 227-44 ("The Teaching of Ger-
man in German Higher Schools").

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xv.

Thomas, C. S., The Teaching of English in the Secondary School, chap. I.

Extended bibliographies: Thomas, C. S., as above, pp. 346-50; Bureau of
Education Bulletin (1917) no. 2, pp. 156-77.

CHAPTER XIII

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE
PROGRAM OF STUDIES

193. Historical development in America. Attention has
previously been called to the fact that during the colonial
period the studies of the secondary school were exclusively
linguistic and literary and were confined to Latin and Greek.
The study of the ancient languages and literature, therefore,
has had an unbroken history since the beginning of second-
ary education in America, being perpetuated through the
academy and the public high school. From about 1900 the
study of Greek has tended to disappear from the program
of the public secondary school, its demise being assisted by
the removal of the protecting influence of college admission
requirement. In this connection it may be well to note that
common opinion has always ascribed to the study of Greek
in the public secondary school of the nineteenth century a
prominence which it never really attained. As a matter of
historical fact it is quite improbable that the proportion of
pupils studying Greek in the public high schools of this
country ever was as high as five per cent of the total enroll-
ment.1 The assumed popularity of Greek in the public high
schools of America never was a reality.

The modern foreign languages found their way into the
program of the modern secondary school via the academy
which contributed the study of French and German to the
early high school. Thus French was introduced into the
Girls' High School of Boston as an optional subject in 1826

1 Inglis, A. J., The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts, pp. 89-94,
108-10.

448 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

and into the program of the English Classical (High) School
of Boston in 1836. l German was introduced at least as early
as 1838-39 in the Central High School of Philadelphia. Dur-
ing the earlier period the study of French and German wa:
upheld for its cultural values primarily. Latin sentiment
and race influences extensively affected the study of the
modern foreign languages, especially German. Finally,
within the past decade or so, the commercial values of such
study have received increased emphasis.

The development of the study of foreign languages in the
public secondary schools from 1890 to 1915 is indicated in
Table CXIX. The data presented in the following table will
further illustrate that development.

TABLE CXX. NUMBERS OF PUPILS ENGAGED IN FOREIGN
LANGUAGE STUDIES *

Year

Latin

German

French

Spanish

Greek

1890

70,411

21,338

11,858

6,202

;§> 1895

163,950

39,901

22,813

10,859

w"8 1900...

262,767

74,408

40,395

14,813

3-8 1905...

341,248

137,661

62.120

10,002

£ 1910

362,548

175,083

73,161

4,920

5,511

1915

434,925

284,294

102,516

81,743

3,351

1890

100,144

34,208

28,032

12,869

1 1895
|g 1900

205,006
314,856

58,921
94,873

45,746
65,684

22,159
24,869

Si 1905...

391,067

160,066

89,777

17,158

** 1910

405,502

192,933

95,671

5,283

10,739

3 1915

503,985

312,358

136,131

35,148

10,671

* Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, pp. 487-89. The
figures are actually higher since not all schools reported the necessary data.

Between 1890 and 1900 the public secondary-school en-
rollment increased 140 per cent, the number of pupils study -

1 First appearance in the Regulations for 1836; claimed for 1832.

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 449

ing Latin increased 273 per cent, the number of pupils
studying German increased 249 per cent, the number of
pupils studying French increased 241 per cent, and the
number of pupils studying Greek increased 139 per cent.
Between 1900 and 1910 the total enrollment increased 78
per cent, the number of pupils studying Latin increased 38
per cent, the number of pupils studying German increased
135 per cent, the number of pupils studying French in-
creased 81 per cent, and the number of pupils studying
Greek decreased 63 per cent. Between 1910 and 1915 the
total enrollment of the public secondary school increased
45 per cent, the number of pupils studying Latin in-
creased 20 per cent, the number of pupils studying Ger-
man increased 62 per cent, the number of pupils studying
French increased 40 per cent, the number > of pupils study-
ing Greek decreased 39 per cent, and the number of pupils
studying Spanish showed a noticeable increase.

194. Present status. Few, if any, high schools in the
United States (other than certain special schools) fail to
offer foreign languages in their programs of study. Com-
monly at least two foreign languages are offered. In many
high schools some foreign language study is required of the
majority of pupils at some stage in the secondary school
course.

Such figures as those presented in Table CXX emphasize
the necessity of analyzing the values claimed to accrue from
the study of foreign language, which at the present time
occupies the attention of considerably more than one half
of the entire number of pupils in the secondary schools
and (at a rough estimate) consumes about one seventh to
one fifth or more of all the time spent by all students
in the secondary school. Here some comparisons with
the higher-school programs of Germany and France are
instructive.

450 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE CXXI. FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE PRUSSIAN
HIGHER SCHOOLS FOR BOYS*

•

Latin

Greek

French

English

Total

Gymnasium:

Number of years studied . . .

Total number of "periods" .

i24

Per cent of total time

26.3

13.9

7.7

Elective

47.9

Realgymnasium :

Number of years studied. . . .

Total number of "periods" .

Per cent of total time

18.7

11.0

6.9

36.6

Oberrealschule:

Number of years studied . . .

Total number of "periods".

Per cent of total time

18.0

9.5

27.5

* Compiled from Lehrplane und Lehraufgaben fur die hSheren Schulen in Preussen (1901),
pp. 4-6.

From these figures it appears that in the Prussian Gymna-
sium nearly one half of the entire course is devoted to the
study of foreign languages, more than two fifths of the entire
time being devoted to the study of the ancient languages.
In the Realgymnasium nearly three eighths of the course is
devoted to the study of foreign languages, about equally
divided between Latin and the modern languages. In the
Oberrealschule more than one quarter of the entire course is
devoted to the modern foreign languages — French and
English. It will be noted, of course, that the modern foreign
languages are of much greater social and commercial value
in Germany than in America.

In the French secondary school also the study of foreign
languages plays an important role.

From the figures in Table CXXII it appears that from
one fifth to one half of the course in the French lycee or

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 451

TABLE CXXII. FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE FRENCH
SECONDARY SCHOOL FOR BOYS *

Latin

Greek

Modern
Languages

Total

Section A:
Length of course in years . .
Number of "periods"
Per cent of total time

6-7
33

23.6

4-5 .
16
11.5

6-7
20
14.3

69
49.4

Section B:
Length of course in years . .
Number of "periods"

6-7
33

6-7
32

Per cent of total time

23.3

22.6

45.9

Section C:
Length of course in years . .
Number of "periods"

6-7
33

6-7

55
55

Per cent of total time

21.6

14.4

36.0

Section D:
Length of course in years . .
Number of "periods"
Per cent of total time

6-7
33

22.7

* Plan d'Etudet et Programmes de VEnseignement Secondaire des Garyons, p. S&-177 (llth
edition).

college is devoted to the study of foreign languages, more
than one fifth of the entire time being devoted to the
study of Latin except in Section D. Here again compari-
sons with the situation in America are difficult because of
the social and commercial importance of the modern for-
eign languages in France and because of the close relation
between the Latin and French languages.

195. A preliminary analysis of aims and values. Values
claimed for the study of foreign languages in the American
secondary school may be readily classified under two broad
heads: (1) those which arise from the relatively direct and
specific use of the foreign language as a medium of communi-
cation for the expression of the user's thoughts or for the

452 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

interpretation of the thoughts of others; (2) those which
arise indirectly from the study of the foreign language either
by the effect of that study on the language-thought relation
or through the improvement of certain general mental traits.
Either of these grouped values may be further subdivided
Thus under the head of direct and specific values should be
considered: (a) the use of the foreign language for purposes
of social intercourse, including its use in travel, etc. ; (b) its
use for commercial purposes; (c) its instrumental use for
reading purposes — its propaedeutic values; (d) its social-
cultural use as a means for extending one's understanding
and appreciation of the literature, history, life, customs, etc.,
of other peoples. Under the head of indirect and general
values should be considered: (a) the use of the study of a
foreign language for the development of ability to associate
language and thought in one's native tongue; (6) the use of
the study of a foreign language to development of certain
general mental traits. For purposes of further analysis in
the following sections all these values may be classified as
follows :

(1) Direct and specific values:
(a) Social values.

(6) Vocational values.

(d) Social-cultural values.

(2) Indirect and general values:
(a) General linguistic values.
(6) General transfer values.

In spite of the recognized interrelation of these values it
is profitable to consider them separately in the following
sections.

196. Values for social intercourse. In attempting to
estimate the direct and specific values of the study of for-
eign languages for purposes of social intercourse, e.g., in

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 453

travel or in this country, at least three facts are obvious:

(1) that such values apply to the modern languages only;

(2) that such direct and specific values are undoubted and
unquestioned for some individuals; (3) that such values are
limited and contingent, i.e., they may be very great for a
limited number of individuals and little or lacking for others.
As a matter of fact they are important for a very restricted
number of individuals, helpful but to an insignificant de-
gree for a few others, and totally lacking for the great ma-
jority of secondary-school pupils. Certainly less than five
per cent of the pupils who study German in the secondary
schools of this country will ever have the slightest need of
utilizing that language for purposes of social intercourse and
certainly less than one per cent of all pupils attending the
secondary school will find such values in that study. The
case is much the same for the study of French for purposes
of social intercourse. The contingency that such a small
proportion of secondary school pupils may have this oppor-
tunity (not need) for the use of a foreign language for such
purposes cannot justify any important position for the study
of a foreign language in the public secondary school. The
fact that in this country are large numbers of people whose
native tongue is German, French, or any other tongue is an
argument not for attaching importance to these languages
for purposes of social intercourse but rather against any
such procedure. The practice obtaining in certain communi-
ties, where racial influence is strong, of giving undue prom-
inence to the study of a foreign language for purposes of
social intercourse is distinctly un-American and contra-
social.

197. Values for commercial purposes. In the case of the
values of the study of foreign languages for commercial
purposes, as in the case of values for purposes of social inter-
course, the same three facts are obvious: (1) that such

454 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

values apply to the modern languages only; (2) that such
direct and specific values are undoubted and unquestioned
for some individuals; (3) that such values are limited and
contingent. Within the past decade or so the attention of
the secondary school has been directed more toward the
importance of the study of foreign languages for vocational
purposes. This has resulted from two facts, the recognition
in the secondary schools of the vocational aim in secondary
education and the recognition of the relative inefficiency of
our machinery for international commerce. The values of
the study of certain foreign languages for commercial use
has been readily accepted as valid by the school public and
by school authorities, who have, however, frequently failed
to recognize that commonly such values are highly limited
and highly contingent. They have failed commonly to
appreciate the fact that bilingual men and women in this
country are in plentiful supply in the great majority of in-
stances and that the smattering of German, French, or
Spanish gained in the secondary school does not enable the
individual so equipped to compete on anything like equal
terms with the German- American, the French-American,
or the Spanish-American. Whether or not this be accepted
as a fact it must be recognized that the annual increase in
the number of those added to the commercial population
who utilize German, French, or Spanish is relatively small
— small out of all proportion to the number of those who
leave our secondary schools equipped with some knowledge
of one or more of those languages. That as high as five per
cent of the pupils in the public secondary schools should
study a foreign language for commercial or vocational
purposes would probably be a gross over-estimate.

198. Values for instrumental purposes. While ordinarily
stated as a quite subordinate aim of the study of foreign
languages in the secondary school, the instrumental-propse-

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 455

deutic aim of the study may deserve passing notice if for
no other purpose than to call attention to the fact that it
is limited and highly contingent. The claims for this value
are commonly stated somewhat in this form: in the higher
vocations one should be able to keep abreast with the
thought and activities of those in the same vocation in
other countries; to do this he must be able to read techni-
cal journals, etc., in the tongue in which they are originally
written; hence he should be able to read French, German,
etc. In such an argument both the necessity of such knowl-
edge by the specialist is over-estimated and the contingency
that many individuals will be concerned is over-estimated.
In these days few writings of importance fail to receive no-
tice by translation or in summary in the technical journals
written in English. When such means are not adequate
the expenditure of a little money for translation commonly
saves much effort and produces equally valuable results. It
is to be noted, too, that the contingency is practically limited
to secondary-school pupils who are destined for a college
course which may well include the study of a foreign lan-
guage for instrumental purposes.

199. Values for social-cultural purposes. Beyond doubt
one of the desirable results of the study of the language and
literature of a foreign people may be an increased knowledge
of the life, customs, institutions, thought, etc., of that peo-
ple and thereby a means for the interpretation of one's own
country, its life, thought, institutions, etc. The events of
the present time illustrate clearly how important such inter-
national understanding may be and how important it may
be to have citizens of one country understand and appreciate
those of another. In this connection, however, two import-
ant problems arise: (1) How far can the ordinary course in
a foreign language offered in the secondary school provide
for this consummation? and (2) How far could the desirable

456 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

content elements of the study of foreign literature be pro-
vided without involving the study of the foreign language?
(1) Whatever be the possibility of deriving social-cultural
values from the study of a foreign language in the secondary
school we may be sure that there is a constant tendency on
the part of its proponents who have enjoyed extended con-
tact with its literature to overestimate the values commonly
derived from the limited study of the secondary school pupil
and to interpret those values in terms of their own extended
acquaintance with the language, literature, and life of the
people whose language is studied. It is at least questionable
whether the secondary school pupil through a course of study
which may have involved from two or three hundred hours
to a thousand hours of contact with the field (a large pro-
portion of which has been devoted to the language side pure
and simple) ever approaches the point where the content
values of the study assume importance for social-cultural
values. Standards set by the Committee of Twelve ap-
pointed by the Modern Language Association are as follows:

TABLE CXXIII

French German

Pages read in first two years 350 to 375 225 to 250

Pages read in third year of course 400 600 400 400

Pages read in fourth year of course 600 1000 500 500

Total for four years of study 1350 to 1975 1125 to 1150

The amount of Latin literature ordinarily read in the
secondary school is about 500 to 550 pages of Caesar, Cicero,
and Vergil. How much content value (literature, history,
etc.) can be gained from such a small amount of study can-
not be estimated but it may well be doubted that such value
is very great, especially when it is realized that greater atten-
tion is devoted to language interpretation than to the con-
tent. If, however, the ability to use the foreign language

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 457

renders it possible, as it does, for the individual to continue
and extend his acquaintance with the literature, life, etc.,
of the foreign people through further reading of that liter-
ature after completing the secondary -school course, much
greater social-cultural values must be assigned to the study
of the foreign languages. Unfortunately, save in the case
of certain pupils who continue their education in the college,
experience has shown all too clearly that the competition
of literature in the mother tongue is too strong and that
little is to be expected in the continued use of the foreign
language after the school course is ended.

(2) The claim, readily granted, that certain social-cul-
tural values may be derived from the study of foreign lan-
guages has raised a second issue in the question whether or
not such values cannot be more easily acquired in great part
at a less expenditure of time and energy, either through the
study of history (for a knowledge of the life, customs, etc.,
of the foreign people) or through the study of translations
(for acquaintance with the literature, thought, customs, etc.,
of that people). Here it is claimed on the one hand that by
such means (somewhat indirect) much of the charm of liter-
ature and much of the characteristic spirit of a people is lost.
This is doubtless true. On the other hand it is argued that
it is just that finer element of "charm," just that subtler ele-
ment of "spirit" that the secondary-school pupil does not
and cannot get, save in very few instances, and that such ele-
ments as may be extractible from the study of the foreign
language in the original and not derivable in other indirect
ways for the secondary-school pupil are small out of all
proportion to the amount of time and energy expended. In
this connection it may be observed that the pieces of foreign
literature commonly read in the secondary school are just
those for which there already exist excellent translations or
those which might be adequately translated with ease.

458 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

200. Summary and correlation of direct values. In the
preceding sections each of the direct and specific values
claimed for the study of foreign languages has been consid-
ered in isolation and it has been pointed out that each of
those values is limited and contingent. This is, of course,
markedly the case with respect to the study of the ancient
languages where direct values are highly restricted. Thus
the values of the study of Latin and Greek for purposes
of social intercourse and for commercial purposes are nil.
Their vocational and instrumental values are limited to a few
professions such as the ministry, law, medicine, literature,
teaching, etc. Less limited and less contingent are the social-
cultural values of the study of the classical languages, but
there the study is conditioned by the considerations adduced
in the preceding section. In the case of the modern lan-
guages the direct and specific values of their study are much
greater, but still decidedly limited and contingent.

While no single direct value of the study of foreign lan-
guages can justify any great amount of attention to those
subjects in the program of studies and while their direct val-
ues are limited and contingent to a degree not ordinarily ap-
preciated, the coordination and correlation of all those direct
and specific values establishes an aggregate value which is
important for the secondary-school program. The number
of pupils who may properly study a modern foreign language
for purposes of social intercourse, plus the number who may
study it for vocational purposes, plus the number of those
who may study it for instrumental-propaedeutic purposes,
plus the number of those who may study it for social-cultu-
ral values, gives an aggregate number of pupils who may
legitimately study a foreign language in the public secondary
school large enough to warrant attention to its study therein.
It is obvious, however, that such direct and specific values
cannot justify the study of Latin by 503,985 pupils, the

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 459

study of German by 312,359 pupils, and the study of
French by 136,131 pupils at any one time in the secondary
schools of this country, and the prescription or semi-pre-
scription of the study of sonic foreign-language study by
the majority of pupils in such schools. If any such justifica-
tion can be found for the prominent position which foreign-
language study now occupies in the schools it must rest in
part at least on different grounds than the direct and specific
values. It therefore remains to consider the possible indirect
and general values which have been claimed for the study
of foreign languages. This is, of course, particularly true
of the study of the ancient languages.

201. Foreign-language study and " general discipline."
In common with most subjects in the secondary-school
program the foreign languages have always been justified
by their proponents in part on the basis of their values
for training such general mental functions as " concentra-
tion," " accurate observation," "intelligent discrimination,"
" memory," " reasoning," etc. Such claims have been and
are made for each of the foreign languages, but have been
emphasized particularly in the case of the ancient languages
for which relatively little direct and specific value can be
established. An excellent example of this argument may be
found in Lodge's eulogy of the study of the classical lan-
guages:1

"The first and dominant object of all education is to teach the
child, the boy or girl, to use his or her mind; that is, in other words,
to teach them so to control their minds that they can apply them
to any subject of study and especially to a subject which it is a duty
and not a pleasure to master and understand. When this power to
use and control the mind is once thoroughly attained, the boy or

1 Lodge, Senator H. C., Address before the Classical Conference at
Princeton University, June 2, 1917, in West, A. F. (Editor), Value of the
Classics, pp. 102-Oi

460 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

girl can then learn anything which his or her mind is capable of
receiving and acquiring. Very few minds can master every branch
of learning. The man who can learn languages may be wholly un-
able to go beyond the rudiments of mathematics. Some minds again
are much more powerful than others, just as some bodies are much
more muscular than others, and are able to go further in any direc-
tion than the average intelligence. We all have our mental limita-
tions. But it is none the less profoundly true that those who have
been taught to use and control their minds can apply them to any
subject and go as far as their individual limitations permit. So
far all, I believe, who have reflected upon the subject will agree.
I think we may also agree that as any form of exercise will develop
some muscles and some forms will develop all, so any kind of study
properly pursued, whether it is arithmetic or Sanscrit roots, will
develop muscles of the mind and give it the power of continuous
application by a mere exercise of the will.

Without attempting any detailed criticism of Senator
Lodge's statements we may point out that it illustrates an
argument for education which is based on a theory of the
mind which has been abandoned by practically every psy-
chologist. The thesis to which he assumes that " all who have
reflected upon the subject will agree " is exactly the thesis
to which every psychologist will disagree or at least ques-
tion.

In considering the problem of "general discipline," we
may safely discard the implications of a faculty psychology
and turn our attention to the question of the transfer or
spread of mental efficiency acquired in connection with the
study of foreign language to non-linguistic fields. The vital
question is whether efficiency gained in and through and for
the study of foreign language can be generalized and made
operative in other studies and activities. In Chapter XI
were outlined theories of the possibility, method, and extent
of the " transfer of improvement " to " generalized experi-
ence." It was there pointed out that the possibility of trans-
fer is universally granted, that theories differ widely as to

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 461

the method and extent of such transfer, and that in its ulti-
mate analysis transfer must depend on the operation of the
laws of dissociation. It was further pointed out that the
degree of transfer must depend on the degree in which con-
ditions are favorable for the operation of the laws of disso-
ciation and therefore on the degree to which the materials
of the subject may be manipulated in teaching so as to pro-
vide conditions favorable for those processes, the character
of the means available, and the methods of their presenta-
tion. It is for these reasons erroneous to assume that all
subjects are equally valuable for transfer or that transfer
is dependent entirely on methods of teaching. Here as else-
where the values of a subject are to be determined both by
the nature of its materials and by the methods of teaching
employed.

Doubtless some transfer or spread of improved efficiency
is possible from the study of any subject in any manner.
If such transfer is to be made extensive, however, the most
favorable materials must be chosen and the most favorable
methods employed with recognition of transfer as a definite
end. At present neither psychological theory nor experi-
mental evidence can afford satisfactory criteria whereby
to estimate the transfer values of the study of foreign lan-
guage. However, it is unjustifiably arbitrary to ignore or
minimize the facts that (after the time of the Greeks) lan-
guages were almost the sole materials of formal education
up to the end of the eighteenth century and the dominant
materials up to the end of the nineteenth century, that the
materials of foreign language study are at least favorable
for exercise in mental functions of the greatest value, if trans-
ferable, that such materials are well adapted for ready man-
ipulation and may be made favorable for transfer, and that,
with the possible exception of mathematics, the long-con-
tinued study of foreign languages has developed a body of

462 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

recognized teaching method approached by no other sub-
ject of study in the secondary-school program.

Pending more definite knowledge of the method and
extent of the transfer of improved efficiency one may safely
assume the position of the Committee on Ancient Lan-
guages, mutatis mutandis, for foreign language in general.1

Hence the Committee suggests that teachers of Latin and those
responsible for the administration of the schools be on their guard
against (1) expecting too much transfer, (2) expecting too little
transfer, (3) expecting transfer to be automatic. Pending the estab-
lishment of more conclusive theories of the "transfer of improved
efficiency," the Committee recommends a careful analysis of the
mental traits employed in the study of Latin, to determine what
mental traits it is desirable to transfer from that field to other
fields, what traits are actually transferred, and what other traits
may be so transferred.

The Committee expresses its belief that among the mental
traits involved in the study of Latin wherein transfer is most to
be expected will be found the following: habits of mental work,
tendency to neglect distracting and irrelevant elements, ideals of
thoroughness, ideals of accuracy and precision, and attitudes to-
ward study and intellectual achievement.

The character of the Latin language, the well-established organ-
ization of materials for the study of the language, and the existence
of a well-defined body of methods of teaching the language con-
tribute to the development of the values indicated above.

The Committee further holds that in proportion as such po-
tential values are consciously the aim of the work in Latin and
consciously developed, in like proportion conditions are favor-
able to their realization as actual results of the work in Latin.

202. Values for language-thought relations. Among the
claims for the values of the study of a foreign language is the
claim that it aids greatly in the improvement of ability to
use one's native tongue. As ordinarily presented arguments
in support of that claim deal with a very vital issue in a very

* Report of the Committee on Ancient Languages, Commission on the Re*
organization of Secondary Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin.

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 463

superficial way, being limited to etymological and vocabu-
lary factors and almost neglecting the close relation between
language use and the mental processes. Here we may revert
to considerations adduced in Chapter XII. It was there
stated that language is to be conceived not only as an instru-
ment for the communication of thought, but also as an in-
strument for thinking itself, and that the aims and values
of language study in the secondary school must recognize
that fact. It was also pointed out that the problem of the
school in respect to language is to transform the pupil's
language into an instrument for assisting and conveying
thought, i.e., to make it a flexible intellectual instrument as
well as a tool for ordinary expression. Finally, Dewey's sug-
gestions concerning the way hi which this transformation is
to be accomplished were interpreted to involve three ele-
ments: (1) the development of a capital stock of words;
(2) the development of increasing precision and accuracy in
the use of words as related to thought; (3) the development
of habits of interrelating those words so as to facilitate con-
secutive thinking and consecutive discourse. It now re-
mains to point out how the study of a foreign language may
aid in those three processes.

(1) Enlargement of vocabulary : While the problem of the
enlargement of vocabulary, in the sense of increasing the
number of word symbols more or less at the command of the
individual, is in many ways so closely related to the pro-
cesses of rendering terms more precise and accurate tools
that the two processes are perhaps best considered together,
two important factors involved in the study of a foreign lan-
guage may be considered here.

(a) Attention has been called previously to the fact that
there is a constant tendency for the individual to accumulate
verbal symbols, particularly abstract and general words and
words representing qualities and relationships, without clear

consciousness of their meanings. In the development of our
use of language there comes a time when the ability to
understand words heard or seen (especially in a context) far
outstrips our ability to use those words to assist thought or
to express thought, and only partially to grasp the thought
expressed by those words when heard or seen in any new
context. In the study of a foreign language, especially in
the process of translation, consciousness of the meaning of
the word of the mother tongue is a necessity before the
thought can be interpreted, though exception to this state-
ment must be made in cases where the term to be translated
has a single equivalent in the mother tongue. That con-
scious attention to the meaning of terms which may be min-
imized in the use of the mother tongue when its use becomes
more or less mechanical is highly fostered in the study of a
foreign tongue, particularly in the process of translation.
This arises from two facts: first, that in a large proportion
of cases terms of the foreign language have not exact equiv-
alents in the mother tongue; second, that the context does
not give meaning to the specific term in the same ready way
in which the context of the mother tongue has rendered aid
to its interpretation.

(6) The amount of aid afforded to the enlargement of
vocabulary by a knowledge of words in a foreign tongue
from which words in the mother tongue have been derived
or to which they are etymologically related is doubtless at
times much exaggerated. This should, however, not blind
us to the undoubted fact that such etymological values exist
and ought not be minimized. The number of words in the
English language derived directly or indirectly from, the
Latin has been estimated as high as fifty or sixty per cent
of our total vocabulary. The number of words derived
directly or indirectly from Greek has been estimated as high
as twelve per cent. The number of words derived from

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 465

French has been estimated as high as one third of our total
vocabulary. The Anglo-Saxon element of our language is
closely related etymologically to the German as a member
of the same family of languages. These are facts which
cannot safely be completely ignored. It should be noted
also that words of the English language derived from Greek,
Latin, and French sources are those most closely related to
precise and accurate meanings (many were introduced for
that very purpose), while our Anglo-Saxon words are the
more common terms for " ordinary affairs and conveni-
ences."

(2) Rendering terms more precise and accurate instruments
of thought and expression : The enlargement of the capital
stock of vocabulary and the rendering it more precise and
accurate are in reality part and parcel of the same process
when properly conducted, and in dealing with the enlarge-
ment of the vocabulary through the study of a foreign lan-
guage we have already encroached to some extent on the
present topic. In this specific connection importance may
be attached to the study of a foreign language because of the
practice which it affords in relating words to the thought.
Terms in any one language seldom have exact equivalents
in any other language. Hence the interpretation of one lan-
guage in terms of another necessarily involves a constant
comparison and weighing of terms more or less similar, a
selection and choice of the correct words to express the
thought, and a judgment of the thought to be conveyed by
the word or words employed. Thus, consider the amount
of comparison, discrimination, and choice involved in the
translation of the Latin word res under varying conditions
— thing, object, event, circumstance, occurrence, matter, con-
dition, situation, act, property, factor, fact, reality, effect, sub-
stance, possession, benefit, profit, advantage, interest, weal,
cause, reason, ground, account, business, case, suit, etc., etc.

466 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Now, increased precision and accuracy in the use of lan-
guage and thought must result almost exclusively from
practice in comparing, discriminating, and selecting the
appropriate word for the desired thought element, and con'
ditions favorable for such comparison, discrimination, and
selection for the better relationing of words and thought are
those which do not merely permit, but actually demand, the
operation of those processes. Those conditions may be
amply provided in the study of a foreign language.

It is to be noted in this connection that, wherever single
exact equivalents are associated in the foreign and the
mother tongues, no such comparison, discrimination, selec-
tion, and relationing can result, the mere substitution of
symbols results, and hence increased precision and accuracy
is impossible. Since the proportion pf exact equivalents
differs in the various foreign languages this factor permits
some measure of the relative values of the study of foreign
languages with reference to those now under consideration.
It is to be noted also that such values as those considered
in the preceding paragraphs involve the close relationing
of English and the foreign language with emphasis on trans-
lation, etc., a fact to be recognized as an element affecting
the question of methods of teaching foreign languages which
will be briefly discussed in a later section.

(5) The development of habits of interrelating words so as
to facilitate consecutive thinking and consecutive discourse :
Here possibly more than in any other respect the study of a
foreign language may assist expression and thought. The
English language, with its unusually large vocabulary of
words borrowed from almost every possible source, with its
abundance of approximate synonyms well adapted to ex-
press numerous shades of meaning and to permit extensive
discrimination in thinking and expression, is well adapted
to its needs as an instrument of expression and for intellec-

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 467

tual enterprises. To these ends also it is well adapted by
reason of the relative flexibility which permits its easy
manipulation. However, acquired in the early stages for
purposes of social intercourse and employed commonly for
purposes of everyday use in circumstances which do not
emphasize its use as a precise and accurate instrument of
thinking or expression, its use does not enforce such con-
scious relationing of words and expressions as is involved in
the use of a more synthetic language. Without a certain
amount of such conscious relationing conditions are not
favorable for the transformation of the use of language for
the ordinary affairs of everyday life into its use as an intel-
lectual instrument.

It is just here that the study of a foreign language, espe-
cially a language which is more synthetic, may be made of
service for the accomplishment of such a transformation.
In the study of a foreign language that conscious relationing
of terms and phrases not only may but must take place and
wherever translation is involved it must take place in the
mother tongue as well as in the foreign language. Such a
process becomes necessary as a result of vocabulary differ-
ences previously emphasized and as a result of differences
in word order and differences in inflectional usages in the
mother tongue and in the foreign language.

In the entire discussion of this section it is to be noted that
there is emphasized not a transfer of elements from one lan-
guage to another, not a transfer of mental functions, but
the development of improved efficiency in the use of the
mother tongue as related to the mental elements which can
be grasped and retained only by means of its terms. In
other words there is involved no question of general dis-
cipline or transfer except as language, operating as an instru-
ment in all intellectual enterprises, may be considered a
common element in the training and application situations.

,8 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

203. The mother tongue and foreign languages. It is im-
portant to remember that in the study of the mother tongue
and in the study of a foreign language one of the most funda-
mental objectives is in many respects the same — the
development of an ability to employ language (the mother
tongue) as an instrument for thinking and for expression,
as an intellectual instrument and as a social instrument.
It is important also to remember that, while the use of lan-
guage in both respects must ultimately be manifested in the
use of the mother tongue, there is really involved a change
in the mental processes which underly language use, i.e., the
relation of language to mental life must constantly be kept in
mind. If this theory be recognized as valid it must be recog-
nized also that the general values of the study of the mother
tongue and the indirect values of the study of a foreign lan-
guage involve much the same problem.

One of the most important and most persistent problems
involved in the study of foreign languages in the secondary
school raises the question whether it would not be better to
devote more attention to the mother tongue and less to the
foreign languages, whether more value could be gained from
a relatively short additional period devoted to the study of
English than from the relatively long period now devoted
to the study of foreign languages. Two separate questions
are involved here, one affecting the matter of direct social-
cultural values, the other affecting the matter of indirect
linguistic values.

(1) Direct values : Among the direct values commonly
claimed for the study of foreign languages were mentioned :
(a) social-intercourse values; (6) vocational values; (c) in-
strumental-propaedeutic values; (d) social-cultural values.
All those values may be justified to some extent when con-
sidered limited and contingent. The only serious point of
conflict between the values of the study of English and the

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 469

study of a foreign language, as far as direct values are con-
cerned, is found in connection with the social-cultural values
claimed for the study of a foreign language. Here the ques-
tion arises whether the time devoted to the study of a foreign
language for the purpose of becoming acquainted with for-
eign literature, history, life, etc., through the medium of the
foreign language can be justified when many of those values
can be attained through the medium of the mother tongue
or can be evaluated in relation to other studies carried on
through the mother tongue. This point has already been
considered in a preceding section. It need only be repeated
here that it is very doubtful that the study of a foreign lan-
guage can be justified for secondary-school pupils in any
high degree on the basis of such values.

(2} Indirect values : The indirect values commonly claimed
for the study of a foreign language were classified as: (a)
transfer values; (6) general linguistic values. Concerning
the transfer values little can be said here further than has
already been said in chapter XI. This much, however, may
be added, that methods, habits, ideals, and attitudes cannot
be transferred unless they are actually developed in the
original training. It requires little examination to learn that
as yet the teaching of English has failed to secure methods,
habits, ideals, and attitudes of learning comparable to those
secured in the teaching of foreign languages. Whether or
not transfer is possible, this much is sure, that nothing can
be transferred to other fields which has not been developed
in the original training situation.

The most important problem involved in the attempt to
evaluate the study of the mother tongue and the study of a
foreign language is found in connection with the relative
merits of the two as helps in the employment of language
as an instrument for intellectual enterprises and the com-
munication of thought. Attention has previously been called

470 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

to the fact that the teaching of English suffers from some
serious limitations, most of which arise from the fact that it
is difficult to employ the language which is used primarily
for purposes of everyday affairs for the purpose of convert-
ing that same instrument into a tool for the handling of pre-
cise and accurate notions. Training pupils in language use
through composition, for example, suffers from the fact that
the teacher can tell only that what the pupil says or writes
expresses something intelligible: he cannot tell that it ex-
presses correctly and clearly what the pupil was striving to
express. In other words he cannot relate the pupil's English
to the pupil's thought. On the other hand, in the translation
of a passage in a foreign language the exact thought to be
interpreted is a known factor and the teacher presumedly
knows what use of the mother tongue will precisely and
accurately express that thought. For the teacher to know
that the pupil is properly relating language to thought he
must know both the thought to be expressed and the lan-
guage in which it should be expressed. This is possible in
a foreign language: it is impossible in employing English
alone. In all this it is, of course, to be noted that detailed
word relationing is the important element. The interpreta-
tion of larger thought units, the general -plot, or argument, is
quite another matter. The problem here involved is the
improvement of language use, not the interpretation in
general terms of content.

The very facility with which the pupil employes his
mother tongue in ways adequate for the ordinary affairs and
conveniences of everyday life is one of the greatest handi-
caps to the attempt to convert it into a more effective intel-
lectual instrument. The pupil rebels against attempts to
improve an instrument which is quite satisfactory to his
immature mind.

204. The relative values of foreign languages. The

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

preceding considerations have established some critei
for judging the relative values of the study of the different
foreign languages commonly found in the program of the
secondary school. Some limited application of those criteria
may be made here.

(1) Direct values, with emphasis on direct and specific use :
For purpose of social intercourse and for commercial pur-
poses it is clear that the values of the ancient languages,
Latin and Greek, are nil and the values of the modern lan-
guages, while high, are limited to a relatively small number
of individuals and for the majority of secondary-school
pupils are very contingent. For certain other vocational
purposes, for instrumental-propaedeutic purposes all study
of foreign language is limited and contingent. For social-
cultural purposes it would be difficult to estimate the rela-
tive values of the different foreign languages. He would
be a daring individual who would attempt to estimate the
relative social-cultural values of Greek, Roman, German,
French, and Spanish civilizations for the American citizen.
It should be remembered also that here values are doubtful
in view of the possibility of attaining them more economi-
cally through the medium of translations and through the
study of the social sciences.

(2) Indirect values, with emphasis on general values and
the learning process : The unsatisfactory nature of our knowl-
edge of transfer values makes it an almost hopeless task to
attempt to estimate transfer values of the various foreign
languages. If such values exist to an appreciable extent it is
a tenable thesis that the differences which are found be-
tween the analytic character of English, French, and Span-
ish, and the synthetic character of German, Latin, and
Greek, may make a difference in transfer values between
the two groups. The writer would hazard as an a-priori
estimate the transfer values of foreign-language study, the

472 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ascending order as follows: Spanish, French, German,
Greek, Latin. Numerous investigations have been made of
the relative standing of pupils studying different foreign
languages in the secondary school. The results of those
investigations have almost invariably indicated some super-
iority in favor of those studying Latin. However, the inves-
tigations themselves have been so unsatisfactory for the
most part that little dependence can be placed on the re-
sults, largely because they have failed to show whether that
superiority was due to the effect of the study of Latin or
to the fact that pupils of higher selection study Latin.1

That the study of a foreign language contributes some-
thing to one's ability to use his own language can scarcely
be disputed. The pertinent questions are: What is the
amount of that contribution? and, What are the relative
values of different foreign languages for that purpose? The
first of these two questions has been considered above and
the ground taken that the amount of that contribution
affords justification for the study of a foreign language by
secondary-school pupils. The second question remains to
be considered. What are the relative linguistic values of
the study of Spanish, French, German, Greek, Lathi? The
answer to this question will be considered, first, in a-priori
theory, and, secondly, by interpreting the results of experi-
mental investigations.

In the a-priori theory presented in preceding sections it
was pointed out that the study of a foreign language assists
in the development of linguistic ability by increasing the

1 Cf. correlation studies by Burris, W. P., Wissler, C., Parker, S. C.
Brinkerhoff, Morris, and Thorndike — all quoted by Thorndike, E. L.,
Educational Psychology (1903 edition), pp. 35-38; Dotey, A. 1., reported by
Strayer, G. D., The Abilities of Special Groups of High-School Students in
the Subjects which they Studied, School Review Monographs, vol. m, pp. 7-11 ;
Starch, D., "Some Experimental Data on the Value of Studying Foreign
Languages," School Review, vol. xxin, pp. C97-703; vol. xxv, pp. 241-48.

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 473

extent of vocabulary, by rendering vocabulary more precise
and accurate as an intellectual instrument, and by aiding
the development of habits of interrelating words so as to
facilitate consecutive thinking and consecutive discourse.
It was pointed out also that vocabulary development is
assisted through the study of a foreign language by the addi-
tion of new terms, by the necessary comparison, discrimina-
tion, and selection of terms as related to thought elements.
One measure, therefore, of the relative values of the study of
foreign languages is to be found in the differences in their
vocabularies demanding careful comparison, discrimination,
and selection of terms in the mother tongue as expressing
the intended thought. Now in this respect there is a great
difference between the modern languages and the ancient
languages. The modern languages all express modern
thought in the modern way. Both the thought and the
manner of expressing the thought are much closer in the
case of modern languages than in the case of an ancient
language and a modern language. At first thought this
might appear to offer an advantage in favor of the study of
a modern language. The opposite is, however, the case
where not content but practice in comparison, discrimina-
tion, and selection are the important elements involved.
The closer the vocabulary and the manner of expressing
thought in the case of two languages the less is the oppor-
tunity and necessity for those elements. The more different
the vocabularies and the manner of expressing thought the
greater is the opportunity and necessity for careful compari-
son, discrimination, and selection without which the inter-
pretation into the mother tongue is of little value other
than for content. If this be true we cannot do otherwise
than assign superiority to the study of Latin and Greek as
far as these linguistic values alone are concerned.

In developing habits of interrelating words for the pur-

474 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

pose of facilitating consecutive thought and consecutive
discourse also it was suggested that assistance may be ren-
dered by the study of a foreign language through practice
in analyzing related terms and expressions. Here the factors
involved in evaluating foreign languages as assisting this
process are (a) differences in word order, and (6) differences
in inflectional and syntactical usages. The greater these
differences, the greater the necessity imposed on the pupil
of consciously attending to the interrelating of terms em-
ployed for the expression of thought. In point of the amount
of difference in word order there can be no hesitation in
classifying the Romance languages, French and Spanish,
in a class closely similar to English, classifying Latin and
Greek as far removed from English, and German as occupy-
ing a position between the other two classes, nearer the first
than the second. Such values as arise here affect the lan-
guages in ascending order: French and Spanish, German,
Greek, Latin. In point of the amount of difference in
inflectional and syntactical usages the classification would
place French and Spanish relatively close to English,
German, Latin, and Greek relatively remote from English.

Experimental investagations of the relative values of the
foreign languages as studies are more numerous than valu-
able or reliable. As samples we may consider two investiga-
tions, one of which is claimed to indicate great improvement
of linguistic ability as the result of the study of Latin as
compared with the results of the study of German, the other
held by the investigator to indicate little improvement as
the result of the study of Latin.

(a) Perkins conducted an experiment in the commerical
department of the Dorchester (Massachusetts) High School
where the study of Latin had been introduced as an elective
in the commercial courses on the theory that it would im-
prove the use and understanding of the pupils' English.

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 475

After the course had been put into operation and had ap-
proved itself to the empirical judgment of those responsible
an attempt was made to secure quantitative measurements
of the results. The methods employed and the results
obtained may be stated in the investigator's words : x

Obviously, the first step was to select two sets of pupils of equal
ability, one set in the second year of Latin, and the other in the
second year of a modern language. Accordingly we chose pupils
such that each group had virtually the same average mark in Latin,
on the one hand, and modern language, on the other, and also in
English, with the result, in actual figures, that the non-Latin group
in the two studies averages 0.5 of 1 per cent the higher. To make
doubly sure that the Latin pupils were not favored, the non-Latin
group were taken from the section of Mr. Murdock, a classical
scholar, who in his English teaching emphasizes the Latin element
in the language. There were twenty -five in each set, all in the second
year of the school.

Six measurements were made with the results indicated
in the following table.

TABLE CXXIV

Averages c

/ groups

Testt

Latin
(per cent)

German
(per
cent)

1 Spelling

82.5

72.6

2. Use of words in sentences

57.5

40.6

3. Definitions and parts of speech

69.5

33.3

4. Meanings of words and spelling (first test)

57.0

27.5

5. Excellence in vocabulary

36.0

6.8

6. Meaning of words and spelling (second test)

65.3

12.3

If anything this table proves too much.

1 Perkins, A. S., " Latin as a Vocational Study in the Commercial Course,"
The Classical Journal, vol. x, pp. 7-16; cf. also same "Latin as a 'Practical'
Study," The Classical Journal, vol. vm, no. 7.

476 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Starch investigated a number of phases of the relation of
the study of foreign languages to linguistic development.
Some of the results obtained are indicated in the following
tables.1

TABLE CXXV. MEDIAN GRADES IN (UNIVERSITY)
FRESHMAN ENGLISH

54 students who entered with Latin only 83 . 9 per cent

97 students who entered with German only 82.7 per cent

TABLE CXXVI. SIZE OF VOCABULARY OF LATIN AND NON-
LATIN STUDENTS

University students

High-school juniors

Number

Grade
per cent

Number

Grade
per cent

Latin groups

139
50

60.9

58.2

14
32

54.7
50.2

Non-Latin group

TABLE CXXVII. EFFECT OF FOREIGN-LANGUAGE STUDY ON
KNOWLEDGE OF GRAMMAR AND USAGE: HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS

Yeart of foreign-language study

Number of pupils

Average scores
for knowledge of
grammar

Average scores
for correctness
of usage

14.7

32 2

8 weeks

20.8

43 0

1 year

25.5

43 4

2 years

24.8

45 9

3 years

28.6

47 7

205. The place of foreign languages. The place which
instruction in foreign languages is to occupy in the American
secondary school must be determined by the relative impor-
1 Starch., D., loc. cit.

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 477

tance which is to be attached to the different values consid-
ered in the preceding sections. Until within recent years the
greater importance has been attached to the indirect and
general values ascribed to the study of a foreign language
Within recent years the tendency has been in the directiol
of emphasis on the direct values of such study. If that ten
dency proceeds to its logical end it must be recognized that j
the relative prominence heretofore given to foreign language I
should be greatly decreased, since those direct values are
limited and contingent. On the other hand, if recognition is
to be given to indirect and general values, rather extensive
attention must be given to the study of foreign languages.
Justification for the large proportion of secondary-school
pupils at present studying foreign languages and for the
amount of time at present devoted to the study of foreign
languages in the secondary school cannot be found on the
basis of direct and immediately utilitarian values. On the
other hand, if claims for general and indirect values are
valid, some grounds may be found for considerable attention
to foreign-language study.

While any adequate consideration of methods of teaching
a foreign language cannot be attempted here, it may be
noted in passing that if direct values alone are to determine
the aims of foreign language instruction there can be no
doubt that the so-called " direct methods " in some form
must obtain. On the other hand, if the aims are dominantly
determined by the indirect values great importance must
be attached to the use of the mother tongue and to transla-
tion. In the majority of classes it is altogether probable
that methods of teaching are demanded which emphasize
the best elements of the " direct method " without sacrificing
the importance of the mother tongue and without neglecting
the values of translation.

478 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. Make a survey of the commercial houses of any town and ascertain the
demand for those who have a knowledge of foreign languages for com-
mercial purposes.

2. Analyze the work in German or French in any high school to determine
what social-cultural values are involved.

3. To what extent is a knowledge of Latin or Greek valuable to a lawyer?
— to a physician? — to a clergyman?

4. Evaluate the various methods of teaching a modern foreign language
in terms of the values considered in this chapter.

5. In a large high school carry out the following experiment: From pupils
now in the senior class select two groups, group 1 composed of those
who studied one and only one foreign language during the sophomore
years, group 2 composed of those who in the freshman and sopho-
more years studied no foreign language; examine the grades in English
received by those pupils in the last grade of the elementary school
or the work of the first term of the high school; pair off pupils in the
two original groups according to the grades received in the earlier
work in English, so as to secure two groups of equal English ability
as thus measured, leaving exceptional cases out of further considera-
tion. Compare the relative standing in English in the junior year of
the high school of the two groups. Compare their relative standing in
all other high-school work in the junior year.

6. Devise a study of the relative accomplishment of students studying
Latin or French, or German, somewhat along the lines laid down in
the above.

7. In any high school estimate as nearly as possible the numbers of pupils
who may properly study a foreign language for its direct-use values.

8. Make a study of the college-entrance requirements in foreign languages.

9. In any high school determine the proportions of pupils who drop Latin,
French, or German after one year of study; after two years : after three
years.

10. What are the arguments for and against the study of a foreign language
in the first or second year of the junior high school, i.e., at about the
ages of 12-13.

1 1 . What are the arguments for and against the requirement of some foreign-
language study some time in the secondary-school course?

SELECTED REFERENCES
I. General:

Dewey, J., How We Think, especially pp. 170-87.
Flagstad, C. B., Psychologic der Sprachpadagogik.
Henderson, E. N., Textbook in the Principles of Education, pp. 359-82.

THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 479

Judd, C. H., The Psychology of High-School Subjects, chap. vn.

O'Shea, M. V., Linguistic Development and Education, pp. 298-327.

Von Sallwiirk, E., Funf Kapitel vom Erlemen fremder Sprachen.

Starch, D., Educational Measurements, chaps, xi-xin.
II. Ancient languages:

Bennett, C. E., and Bristol, G. P., The Teaching of Latin and Greek
in the Secondary School, especially pp. 1^49, 217-24.

Corcoran, C., Studies in the History of Classical Teaching.

Headlam, J. W., The Teaching of Classics in the Secondary Schools
of Germany, Board of Education (England), Special Reports,
vol. xx.

Kelsey, F. W., Latin and Greek in American Education.

Lodge, G., " The Value of the Classics in Training for Citizen-
ship," Teachers College Record, vol. xvin, pp. 111-121.

National Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Educa-
tion, Report of Committee on Ancient Foreign Languages, Bureau
of Education Bulletin.

Perkins, A. S., "Latin as a Vocational Study in the Commercial
Course," The Classical Journal, vol. x, pp. 7-16; cf. also same,
"Latin as a 'Practical' Study," The Classical Journal, vol. vin,
no. 7.

Rand, E. K., Wenley, R. M., and Shorey, P., "A Symposium on
the Value of Humanistic, Particularly Classical, Studies," School
Review, vol. xvin, pp. 441-59, 513-29, 585-617.

Slaughter, M. S., The High-School Course in Latin.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xni.

West, A. F. (Editor), Value of the Classics.

Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies, especially
pp. 60-885.

Committee of Twelve of the American Philological Association

Report on Courses in Latin and Greek for Secondary Schools.
III. Modern languages:

Armstrong, E. C., " The Place of Modern Languages hi American
Education," School Review, vol. xix, pp. 596-609.

Bagster-Collins, E. W., The Teaching of German in Secondary Schools,
especially pp. 6-38.

Bahlsen, L., The Teaching of Modern Languages.

Board of Education (England); Special Reports on Educational
Subjects, vol. n, pp. 648-79; vol. in, pp. 461-533, et al.

Breul, K., The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages.

Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies, especially
pp. 86-103 (Bureau of Education edition).

Committee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association of
America, Report.

480 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Eggert, B., Der Psychologische Zusammenhang in der Didaktik des

Neusprachlichen Reformunterrichts.
Hall, G. S., Educational Problems, vol. n, chap. xv.
Handschin, C. H., The Teaching of Modern Languages in the United

States, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1913), no. 3.
Jespersen, P., How to Teach a Foreign Language.
Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xiv.

Extended bibliographies: On Modern Languages, Handschin,
C. H., The Teaching of Modern Languages in the United States;
see above, pp. 107-49.

CHAPTER XIV

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE PROGRAM
OF STUDIES

206. Historical development of the study of mathematics.
In the history of secondary education mathematics has held
a position second only to the classical languages and litera-
tures. While the study had appeared in the secondary
schools of Europe in some instances before the beginning of
secondary education in America, it had never gained a firm
foothold, appearing but occasionally in the form of ele-
mentary arithmetic. In the Latin grammar schools of
the American colonies elementary instruction in arithmetic
appeared in some cases at an early period but never became
prominent until about the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury. In the Public Lathi School of Boston, for example, it
was not until some time between 1814 and 1828 that arith-
metic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry were intro-
duced.

Meanwhile impetus had been given to the study of mathe-
matics in the academy, beginning in the Franklin Academy
with its separate mathematical department. It soon spread
to nearly every academy established. Thus, when the high-
school movement began in the third decade of the nine-
teenth century, mathematics had already found a place
in the secondary-school program, and in the first program
of the English Classical (High) School of Boston in 1821
were included arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry,
navigation, surveying, and mensuration. Thus also by the
Massachusetts act of 1827 (the first high-school law in
America) the teaching of algebra, geometry, and surveying

482 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

was made mandatory in the high school of every town in the
State having a population of five hundred families or over.
As the high-school movement spread during the nineteenth
century, mathematics (algebra, geometry, and trigonometry),
became a regular part of the program in high schools through-
out the country.

Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century a knowl-
edge of the fundamentals of arithmetic constituted the only
requirement in mathematics for college entrance, and that
requirement was not universal until that time. Algebra was
made an admission requirement at Harvard in 1820 and in
many other colleges by the middle of the century. By that
time also geometry had begun to find a place in college-
entrance requirements. By 1875 algebra and geometry
had become firmly established as college-entrance require-
ments and in most colleges have been thus retained up to the
present. In 1912 every college which prescribed any subject
other than English prescribed algebra and geometry.

The position which mathematics has occupied in the
program of the public secondary school for the period 1890
to 1915 may be seen from the figures presented in Table
CXIX. Those figures indicate that during the greater part
of that period at any one time approximately one half of all
pupils were engaged in studying algebra and nearly one
quarter in studying geometry.

From this brief resume it may be seen that the study of
mathematics in the American secondary school possesses
all the advantages and all the disadvantages which arise
from the prestige of tradition. As a result of its important
position in the program of studies it has developed a body
of material and method of teaching which is well-organized
and standardized. Its actual values have doubtless been
enhanced in the minds of the public by the force of tradition.
It has benefited by the fostering protection of college-

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS

483

entrance requirements which have been powerful influ-
ences determining the character and place of mathematics
in the secondary school.

207. Present status of mathematics instruction. With
the possible exception of a few special-type schools practi-
cally every secondary school in the United States includes
algebra and plane geometry in its program of studies and
in most schools those subjects are rigidly prescribed for the
majority of pupils. Hence a very large proportion of pupils
in the secondary school are always engaged in the study of
mathematics, few pupils pass through the first part of their
secondary education without some contact with the subject,
and a measurably large proportion of the total time devoted
to secondary education is occupied in the study of mathe-
matics. The latest available returns (those for 1914-15)
indicate the following figures for the numbers of pupils
engaged in mathematical studies.

TABLE CXXVIII. PUPILS ENGAGED IN MATHEMATICAL
STUDIES 1914-15 *

Public schools

Private schools

All schools

Algebra

569,215
309,383
17,220

48.84%
26.55
1.48

66,801
36,681
5,258

53.15%
29.18
4.18

636,016
346,064

22,478

49.26%
26.80
1.74

Geometry ....
Trigonometry .

Total

895,818

76.87

108,740

86.51

1,004,558

77.80

* Report of the United Stales Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, pp. 487-89. The
relatively small amount of overlapping permits totaling.

Where algebra is studied five periods per week for one
year and geometry for a like amount of time about one
eighth of the total time of a pupil who remains four years in
the secondary school is devoted to mathematics. If he re-
mains one or two years about one fourth of his total time is

484 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

devoted to mathematics. Schools in which less than that
amount of time is devoted to mathematics are fewer than
schools in which a greater amount of time is devoted to it.
Mathematics, however, is seldom required for all pupils
throughout the course, and in this respect our practice
differs from practice in Prussia and France. Conditions in
Prussia may be seen from the following figures.

TABLE CXXIX *

Length of course
in years

Total number
of periods t

Per cent of
total time

Gymnasium

13 1

Realgymnasium

16.0

Oberrealschule . . .

17 9

* Lehrplane und fehraufgaben fur die hoheren Schulen in Preussen (1901), pp. 4-6.
t Cf. Tables LXXXIV-LXXXVII.

Until within recent years the theory was almost universal
that mathematics (of a higher grade than arithmetic) should
be required of all pupils passing through the secondary
school. Thus in the programs suggested by the Committee
of Ten in 1893 four periods per week of algebra were pre-
scribed for all pupils in all courses in the first year of the
high school, three periods of geometry per week in the sec-
ond year, two periods of algebra and two periods of geometry
in the third year. In addition the Committee provided an
option of three periods of trigonometry and higher algebra
in the fourth year.1 Even more urgent were the recommen-
dations of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements
through its sub-committee on mathematics in 1899, when it
stated that : " To the close of the secondary -school course the

1 United States Bureau of Education, Report of the Committee on Second-
ary School Studies, pp. 46-47.

485

required work in mathematics should be the same for all
pupils," and that " In the secondary school, work in mathe-
matics should be required of all pupils throughout each of
the four years of the course." 1

A reaction against such a conception has been growing in
force within the past decade or two, the bases for that reac-
tion being found: (1) in an increased recognition of the factor
of individual differences in the capacities, abilities, interests,
and probable futures of pupils; (2) in an increased recogni-
tion of the needs of children who leave before the close of
the high-school course, especially their vocational and social
needs ; (3) in a re-interpretation and re-direction of theories
of the transfer of improved efficiency; (4) a lessening of the
influence of the colleges over the secondary school; (5)
changing conceptions of the social functions of the public
secondary school; and (6) a recognition of the meaning of
retardation and elimination.

208. Preliminary analysis of aims and values. For pur-
poses of analysis the values commonly claimed for the study
of secondary-school mathematics may profitably be con-
sidered under two general headings: (1) those values which
arise from the relatively direct and specific use of mathe-
matics; (2) those values which may arise indirectly through
the development of mathematical concepts or through the
transfer of improved efficiency. Either of these grouped
values may again be subdivided. Thus under the head of
direct and specific values should be considered: (a) the
values of mathematics as measured by the directly practical
application of its principles and processes to those affairs
of life common to most people whatever be their vocations;
(6) the values of mathematics as measured by the directly

1 Report of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements (July, 1899),
published by the National Educational Association, University of Chicago
Press, p. 148.

486 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

practical application of its principles and processes in special
professions or special parts of certain vocations; (c) the
values of mathematics as measured by the direct application
of its principles and processes to other sciences. Under the
head of indirect values may be considered: (a) values
claimed to arise from the study of mathematics as meas-
ured by the development of generally valuable concepts of
number and space relations, together with the development
of certain mathematical thought modes; (6) the values
claimed to arise from the study of mathematics as measured
by the transfer or spread to other fields of improved effi-
ciency gained in that field. For the purpose of further
analysis in the following sections those claimed values may
be classified and considered under the following heads:

(1) Direct and specific use values:

(a) General use values;

(b) Specific vocational values;

(2) Indirect and general values:
(a) Conceptual values;

(6) Transfer values.

The interrelation of these values is recognized. Neverthe-
less separate analysis of each group is profitable.
209. Mathematics in the affairs of everyday life.

There is no subject, except the use of the mother tongue, which
is so intimately connected with everyday life, and so necessary t&
the successful conduct of affairs. Wherever we turn in these days
of iron, steam, and electricity, we find that mathematics has been
the pioneer and guarantees the results. Were its backbone ot
mathematics removed, our material civilization would inevitably
collapse.

But widespread as are the applications of mathematics and
enormous as is its practical value, it may be justly urged that
to the large majority of people its importance, though great, is
indirect, and that the average citizen has but little need of mathe-

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 487

matical facts, or even an opportunity to use them beyond the
merest elements of arithmetic.1

In this passage Young has well stated a truth almost
universally recognized by the mathematician but frequently
ignored by the layman and even by schoolmen, who often
fall into one or both of two fallacies by (a) failing to recog-
nize the relative values of different parts of a field of knowl-
edge which go under the same name, or (6) failing to dis-
tinguish between knowledge which is of universal value to
civilization through a relatively few specialists and that
which all should possess.2 The second fallacy is recognized
by Schultze: 3

It would be an error to infer, from the great usefulness of math-
ematics to our civilization, an equal practical usefulness to every
individual. The percentage of students who are likely to have
practical use for mathematics, after leaving school or college, is cer-
tainly small.

And by Yocum 4 who

emphasizes the distinction ignored by Mr. Spencer between
subject matter useful to the race through the specialist, and sub-
ject matter directly useful to the majority of individuals who are
not specialists.

Little of the secondary -school mathematics as it is now
organized can be considered of direct value to the average
individual for the practical purposes of everyday life. The
general-use values of secondary-school mathematics are
small.

1 Young, J. W. A., The Teaching of Mathematics, p. 13. This and other
extracts are quoted with the permission of the publishers, Longmans,
Green & Co.

2 Cf. Section 165.

3 Schultze, A., The Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools, pp.
17-18. This and other extracts are quoted with the permission of the pub-
lishers, The Macmillan Company.

4 Yocum, A. D., "Mathematics as a Means to Culture and Discipline,"
The Mathematics Teacher, vol. vi, p. 136.

488 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

210. Mathematics in various vocations.

A subject is also valuable as preparation for the contingency that
the child in the future may take up an occupation requiring knowl-
edge of the subject in question. For mathematics this value is
marked, because there is a large and growing number of occupations
which require a knowledge of mathematical results.1

It must be recognized that certain occupations call for
an extended knowledge not only of mathematical results,
but also of mathematical principles and processes. The
number of persons engaged in such occupations is small.
Many other occupations call for some knowledge of mathe-
matical results. A knowledge or use of mathematical results
is, however, a far different thing from a knowledge of math-
ematical principles and processes or the ability to derive
mathematical results. In the majority of occupations which
involve the use of mathematical results those who employ
them commonly depend on fairly simple formulae which
ordinarily are reduced to arithmetical terms in tables. This
is recognized by Schultze: 2

The majority of business or professional callings require no
algebra, geometry, or trigonometry, and even the professions which
use those subjects do so to a much smaller extent than is generally
supposed. There are navigators, surveyors, and engineers who
make their calculations in an almost mechanical manner, without
having perfectly clear notions of the underlying mathematical
principles. Only for those few men who become original designers
and investigators is true mathematical skill and knowledge indis-
pensable.

And by Smith:3

It is well to understand, in the first place, that geometry is
not studied, and never has been studied, because of its positive
utility in commercial life or even in the workshop. . . .

1 Young, J. W. A., op. cit., p. 14. 2 Schultze, A., op. dt., p. 18.

3 Smith, D. E., Tlie Teaching of Geometry, pp. 7, 90.

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 489

All the facts (of geometry) that a skilled mechanic or an engineer
would ever need could be taught in a few lessons. All the rest is
either obvious or is commercially and technically useless.

The actual amount of algebra needed by a foreman in a machine
shop can be taught in about four lessons, and the geometry or
mensuration that he needs can be taught in eight lessons at the
most. The necessary trigonometry may take eight more. . . .

The values of secondary-school mathematics (or some
parts of it) are undoubted for some parts of certain profes-
sions. They are, however, less than is commonly thought
and must be considered as highly contingent for most pupils.

211. The propaedeutic values of mathematics.

So completely is nature mathematical that some of the more
exact natural sciences, in particular astronomy and physics, are
in their theoretic phases largely mathematical in character, while
other sciences which have hitherto been compelled by the com-
plexity of their phenomena and the inexactitude of their data to
remain descriptive and empirical, are developing towards the
mathematical ideal, proceeding upon the fundamental assumption
that mathematical relations exist between the forces and the
phenomena, and that nothing short of the discovery and formula-
tions of these relations would constitute definitive knowledge of the
subject. Progress is measured by the closeness of the approxima-
tion to this ideal formulation.1

That a knowledge of mathematical results, principles, and
processes is requisite for advanced work in the various sci-
ences, mental and social as well as material, is obvious.
Propaedeutic values are real values for the study of mathe-
matics. It should be obvious, however, that for secondary-
school pupils those values are limited and contingent. As
propaedeutic for secondary-school science and the elementary
science courses in college the values of secondary-school
mathematics is commonly over-estimated, though attention
has frequently been called to the very small amount of
1 Young, J. W. A., op. cit., p. 15; cf. Schultze, A., op. cit., p. 15.

490 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

mathematical knowledge required for effective study of
physics and chemistry. Thus Milliken: 1

There is no mathematics needed in elementary physics even as
it is now, except the simplest algebraic equations with one un-
known, and the single geometrical proposition of the proportion-
ality of the sides of similar triangles.

On the whole it is probably safe to say that the number of
pupils for whom the propaedeutic values of the study of
mathematics are appreciably important is relatively small,
being somewhat less than the number of pupils who continue
their education beyond the secondary -school stage.

212. Direct values limited and contingent. Critics of the
study of supra-arithmetical mathematics are almost unani-
mous in their judgments that the study of algebra, geome-
try, and other higher mathematics in the secondary school,
as they are at present organized, cannot be justified for all
pupils or even for any large proportion of pupils on the basis
of their direct and specific values. Thus Schultze: 2

If mathematics, however, had no value as a mental discipline,
its teaching in the secondary schools could hardly be justified
solely on grounds of its bread-and-butter value.

And Karpinski: 3

The practical side of mathematics has frequently been over-
emphasized in popular discussions of its function. . . . And yet,
were we to confine the instruction in arithmetic, geometry, algebra,
and trigonometry to these phases which enjoy a reasonable meas-
ure of actual application, the time devoted to these subjects could
be cut in half. Mathematical instruction must justify itself as
educational material aside from its applied values.

1 Milliken, R. A., School and Society, vol. in, p. 167.

2 Schultze, A., op. dt., p. 18.

3 Karpinski, L. C., p. 132, of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High-School
Education.

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 491

And Young: l

The average citizen has but little need of mathematical facts,
or even opportunity to use them beyond the merest elements of
arithmetic.

In interpreting such statements as these three facts
should be kept in mind: (1) that the direct and specific val-
ues of algebra, geometry, and other secondary -school mathe-
matics as at present organized must always be limited to
certain groups of pupils and cannot be universal; (2) that
they are contingent rather than certain; (3) that the state-
ments refer to mathematics as organized into systematic
sciences, wherein logical and purely mathematical relation-
ships determine the choice and arrangement of materials and
the methods of their presentation in teaching. Points (1)
and (2) have already been considered. Point (3) deserves
some further consideration.

For pupils who may become mathematical specialists or
who may have opportunity to employ mathematical facts,
principles, and processes extensively in advanced work,
systematic and logically organized courses in algebra,
geometry, and other higher mathematics, are justified on the
basis of their direct values. For other pupils no such justi-
fication can be found. On the other hand, there are certain
mathematical facts, principles, and processes, involved in
those subjects, which are of sufficiently common applica-
tion in the affairs of life to warrant their acquirement on the
part of many if not most individuals. Here are to be con-
sidered elements classified by Yocum: 2

(1) All mathematical material specifically useful to those not
specialists, that is sufficiently many-sided and recurring in its
applications or essential in some unique usefulness, to be made
definite and certain for all. . . .

1 Young, J. W. A., op. cit., p. 13.

2 Yocum, A. D., "Mathematics as a Means to Culture and Discipline,"
The Mathematics Teacher, vol. vi, pp. 136-37.

492 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

(2) All mathematical material sufficiently useful to those not
specialists which, while not sufficiently many-sided and recurring
to be made certain for all, is many-sided and recurring enough and
strong enough in its sensational or emotional appeal to be presented
for such individual comprehension and retention as may result.

Recognition of the importance of some mathematical
facts, principles, and processes for the majority of individ-
uals, on the basis of direct and specific values, would justify
the organization of a course in mathematics to meet the
needs common to most individuals. Such a course would
include those, and only those, mathematical facts, principles,
and processes which may reasonably be expected to have
practical applications in the lives of most people, involving
elements of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and such other
mathematics as may be appropriate. Some such course of
"composite" or "combined" mathematics might well find
its place in the junior high school where it would serve not
only to provide useful mathematical knowledges to those
who will leave school early and to those who will not further
study mathematics, but would also serve as a valuable prog-
nostic factor for those who would later in the senior high
school undertake the systematic study of algebra, geometry,
or other higher mathematics. Such further mathematical
knowledges as may be appropriate to industrial or other
vocational courses should be provided in the vocational
courses themselves in direct connection with their vocational
applications.

213. Indirect values claimed : number and space concepts.
Among claims sometimes made for the study of mathemat-
ics is the claim that it develops number and space concepts
which are fundamental elements in mental life. Thus the
National Committee of Fifteen states: l

1 National Committee of Fifteen, Final Report on Geometry Syllabus,
The Mathematics Teacher, vol. v, p. 44.

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 493

The study of geometry leads also to an appreciation of the
dependence of one geometric magnitude on another, in other words
to the tangible concept of functionality.

The study of geometry cultivates space intuition and an appre-
ciation of and control over forms existing in the material world,
which can be secured from no other topic in the high school cur-
riculum.

Likewise the study of algebra has frequently been urged
as a means of extending the concept of number relations
to desirable limits beyond the concrete field of arithmetic.
Beyond doubt number and space concepts play an important
part in the interpretation of all quantitative phenomena. It
would be difficult to say, however, whether additions to such
concepts as arithmetic has developed are important enough
for the majority of individuals to justify any extensive study
of algebra or geometry. None but an a-priori or empirical
answer can be given to this question.

Closely related to the development of number and space
relations is the development of "the language of mathe-
matics." Thus Karpinski: l

Equally important is the fact that like the mother-tongue the
language of mathematics is employed in the daily life of the child;
to formulate this in the language of the psychologist there is a
related body of apperceptive material already present in the child
consciousness.

The literature of almost all fields of science (in the broad-
est sense of that term) is replete with " mathematical lan-
guage," and the " general reader " should have some un-
derstanding of it. Again, however, research is necessary to
determine how far supra-arithmetical study is necessary for
the development of " mathematical language " valuable for
the average individual. None but empirical estimates are
at present possible.

1 Karpinski, L. C., op. tit., p. 133.

494 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

2 14. Mathematics and the transfer of improved efficiency.
From the time of its introduction into the program of the
secondary school the study of mathematics has been justified
by its advocates to a considerable extent on the basis of its
values as a means of " mental discipline." With the growing
realization of the limitations of its direct values and their
contingent character greater and greater emphasis has been
placed on the disciplinary values of secondary-school mathe-
matics. Thus Schultze : l

Mathematics is primarily taught on account of the mental train-
ing it affords and only secondarily on account of the knowledge of
facts it imparts.

Thus also Smith : 2

Here, then, is the dominating value of geometry, its value as
an exercise in logic, as a means of mental training, as a discipline
in the habits of neatness, order, diligence, and above all, of honesty.

Likewise Young: 3

But the facts of mathematics, important and valuable as they
are, are not the strongest justification for the study of the subject
by all pupils. Still more important than the subject matter of
mathematics is the fact that it exemplifies most typically, clearly,
and simply certain modes of thought which are of the utmost
importance to every one.

Since mathematics is a preferential if not a required study
in most secondary schools, and since such general study of
mathematics cannot be justified on the basis of direct values
alone, it is clear that the problem of the possibility, method,
and amount of the transfer or spread to non-mathematical
fields of improved efficiency gained in and through the study

1 Schultze, A., The Teaching of Mathematics in the Secondary School,
p. 29.

2 Smith, D. E., The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics, p. 239.

1 Young, J. W. A., The Teaching of Mathematics in the Elementary and
the Secondary School, p. 17.

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 495

of mathematics is by far the most important problem to be
considered in connection with the values of the study of
secondary-school mathematics. No theory can justify the
prescription of mathematics or any other study for all pu-
pils in the secondary school. On the other hand, if exten-
sive transfer values can be established for that subject, its
position as a leading study in the secondary school can be
justified. If transfer values are lacking or insignificant,
mathematics must cease to occupy a prominent position in
most curriculums.

It cannot be doubted that the study of mathematics
affords abundant opportunity for the exercise of numerous
valuable mental traits, that its subject-matter is peculiarly
adapted to the development of those traits as far as they
may be applied to mathematical content, and that the ma-
terials of mathematics lend themselves readily to manipula-
tion for whatever purpose desired. The important question
is, of course: Can those traits be generalized, divorced from
mathematical content, and utilized in their improved effi-
ciency for other content and other situations in life?

Before attempting to answer that question, it is well to
consider just what traits are commonly claimed by propo-
nents of mathematical study in the secondary school to afford
such improved efficiency. Most prominent among those
traits are those involved in reflective thinking (reasoning).1
This claim has been considered specifically in Chapter XI
and little more can be said here. It may, however, be re-
peated (a) that such transfer is possible; (6) that the method
of transfer depends on the ordinary laws of dissociation;
(c) that the extent of such transfer depends on the degree
in which materials are organized and presented so as to make
conditions favorable for dissociation. It may further be
repeated that whatever transfer is possible it cannot be

1 Cf. Schultze, A., op. oil., pp. 18-26; Young, J. W. A., op. cit., pp. 17 /-

496 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

expected to operate automatically in all cases but should
be aimed at definitely. The amount of actual transfer is
conditioned both by the character of subject matter and
also by the methods employed.

In addition to the claim made for the transfer of ability
in reasoning the many claims commonly made for transfer
values include the following: i (a) development of the
"power of concentration"; (6) development of the "con-
structive imagination"; (c) growth of "mental self-reli-
ance"; (d) development of "character"; (e) capacity for
"generalizing conceptions"; (/) cultivation of "reverence
for the truth"; (gr) cultivating the "habit of self-scrutiny,"
etc. That these desirable mental traits may be exercised in
the study of mathematics is undisputed. The central prob-
lem, however, here as elsewhere, is the problem of their
transferability, and the validity of the claims that mathe-
matics may foster such general traits must be tested by
theories of the method and extent of transfer in general.
Here in particular, however, one must be on guard against
the conception that separate "faculties" or "powers" of
concentration, attention, constructive imagination, etc.,
exist. For the rest the discussion of the general problem
of transfer in Chapter XI must here suffice.

215. Characteristics claimed to favor transfer values.
The first condition for the successful transfer of improved
efficiency is that the trait which it is desired to transfer be
developed in connection with the content of the training
study. In the general discussion of transfer values it was
suggested that subjects of study differ in the degree in which
favorable conditions are afforded for the exercise of the
desired trait and that the transfer of improved efficiency is
primarily conditioned by the character of the original train-
ing material. Secondary-school studies differ in the extent

1 Cf. Schultze, A., op. cit.,pp. 26-27; Young, J. W. A., op. cit., pp. 41 /.

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 497

to which desirable mental traits may be exercised, in the
fitness of the materials for purposes of manipulation in
teaching, and in the character of the materials as already
organized for teaching. In these three respects mathematics
possesses advantages over many subjects of study. The
materials of mathematics, ranging all the way from the sim-
plest to the most complex, may be manipulated almost at
will, thus permitting the arrangement of conditions most
favorable to dissociation. The organization of materials
in the field of mathematics has been determined from the
start for purposes of teaching. With regard to the ready
manipulation of materials for the purpose of fostering trans-
fer values mathematics shares prominence with the language
studies. With regard to the certainty and accuracy of its
data it supersedes all other subjects. With regard to the
opportunity which it affords for the exercise of valuable
mental traits most desirable to transfer, if possible, it is
equaled by few and surpassed by none of the other subjects
in the program of the secondary school.

216. Rugg's experiment. The majority of investigations
designed to determine elements of transfer have dealt with
memory or sense and perceptual factors and for the most
part under laboratory rather than school conditions.
Among the most noteworthy transfer investigations con-
cerned directly with subjects of study and conducted under
school (college) conditions is that of Rugg, who attempted
to determine the transfer effect of the study of descriptive
geometry by college students. The limitations of space per-
mit here only the Summary of Conclusions arrived at by
Rugg: l

The study of descriptive geometry (under ordinary classroom
conditions throughout a semester of fifteen weeks) in which such

1 Rugg, H. O., The Experimental Determination of Mental Discipline
in School Studies, pp. 114-15, 6. Quoted with the permission of the pub-
lishers, Warwick and York.

498 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

natural and not undue consideration is given to practice in geo-
metrical visualization as is necessary for the solution of descriptive
geometry problems operates: —

(1) Substantially to increase the students' ability in solving
problems requiring the mental manipulation of a geometricaf
nature, the content of which are distinctly different from the visua
content of descriptive geometry itself.

(2) Substantially to increase the students' ability in solving
problems requiring the mental manipulation of spacial elements
of a slightly geometrical character, i.e., problems utilizing the fun-
damental elements of geometry (the point, line, and plane), but
apart from a geometrical setting, and in such form as to offer no
geometrical aids in solution.

(3) Substantially to increase the students' ability in solving
problems requiring mental manipulation of spacial elements of a
completely non-geometrical nature, i.e., problems in which the
straight line and plane do not appear in any way whatsoever.

(4) The training effect of such study in descriptive geometry
operates more efficiently hi those problems whose visual content
more closely resembles that of the training course itself, i.e., in
those problems whose imagery content is composed of combina-
tions of points, lines, and planes, and in which the continuity of
the manipulating movements approaches the continuity of those in
the training course.

The possibility of one disciplinary outcome of a specific school
subject, i.e., the ability in the mental manipulation of special ele-
ments, has been established in this investigation. The experi-
menter believes that, hi general, disciplinary outcomes of school
studies will be found hi the above-listed agencies of transfer,
i.e., the development of concepts of method in analyzing 'problem'
situations and organizing methods of procedure, the habitualizing
of reaction to specific cues, the development of attitudes of orien-
tation and familiarity with the type of situation to be met, and the
extension of the range of attention.

The numerous difficulties which surround the investigator
in such a study as that conducted by Rugg prevent us from
accepting the conclusions reached otherwise than as sugges-
tive and tentative. Many more investigations in this field
must be made before any assured judgment can be reached.

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 499

217. Criticism of mathematics as now organized. In the
preceding discussion several points have been raised which
afford some basis for criticism of the economy of the study
of mathematics as at present organized in the American
secondary school.

(1) Previously, attention was called to the common fal-
lacy of assuming values for a whole subject on the basis of
values which are valid for parts only of that subject. This
fallacy is found in the tendency to assign universal values
to secondary-school mathematics on the basis of values
which are valid for elementary phases of the field (arith-
metical material) only. The resultant emphasis on direct
values of the study of algebra and geometry is unjustified.

(2) Current teaching of secondary-school mathematics
commonly errs in expecting to take place too much transfer
of mental traits exercised in the study to non-mathematical
fields. It also errs in expecting such transfer as may be
hoped for to take place automatically and without proper
provision for fostering dissociation. Teachers of mathemat-
ics must recognize that there are no general "faculties " such
as concentration, attention, memory, reasoning, and the
like, which can be developed independently of specific con-
tent. The most that can be hoped for is that valuable meth-
ods of mental activity may be transferred, that ideals of
accuracy, standards of certainty, and the like, may be so
established that they will be generalized from a type form
and dissociated from mathematical content. Further, they
must realize that, while a limited amount of transfer can be
secured under almost any conditions, the desired amount of
transfer can be secured only when materials and methods of
teaching are deliberately adapted to that end and conditions
fostering extensive transfer are provided. It is futile and
criminal to establish the study of secondary-school mathe-
matics on the basis of extensive transfer values and then to

500 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

fail to meet the conditions necessary if any extensive amount
of transfer is to be accomplisLed.

(3) Attempts to emphasize applied mathematics do not
meet the conditions favorable to extensive transfer. Valu-
able though applied mathematics is and important though
" real " problems may be, their function is to attain direct
values and not to foster conditions favorable for transfer.
It is a tenable thesis that for most pupils pure mathematics
is superior to applied mathematics because of its greater
transfer values. Thus Colvin : *

We may then conclude that pure science is of greater disciplin-
ary value, because (1) through the facts which it presents, ideals
of procedure and of truth may be developed which function in a
wider human experience, greatly to the uplift of the race; (2) the
content and method of pure science is such that it has a broader
field of application than has applied science, and can function as an
identical or similar element in more situations than can applied
science; (3) the emotion which the pure seeking after truth arouses
is higher and less likely to be deadened by other emotions than are
the ideals of economic improvement and social betterment, which
are the ideals of applied science.

It is to be noted here that applied forms of mathematics
have their place, and an important place in the program of
studies, but that importance attaches to the study of applied
mathematics on the- basis of its direct values for special
groups of pupils.

(4) The fact that justification can be found for the teach-
ing of secondary-school mathematics on the basis of its
indirect values and the fact that those values are not limited
to special curriculum groups of pupils do not justify any
assumption that all pupils should study algebra and geome-
try. The common requirement of the study of algebra and
geometry on the part of all pupils is opposed to the concep-

1 Colvin, S. S., The Learning Process, pp. 249-50 et circ. Quoted with
the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company.

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 501

tion that individual differences in capacities, interests, and
future activities must be recognized. This is true whether
we accept or reject indirect values.

(5) From whatever angle we approach the problem of the
organization of mathematics the present method of isolating
arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, and other departments
of mathematics raises serious questions. If we approach the
problem from the viewpoint of the nature of mathematics
as a science, we face the fact that mathematical thought is a
complex unit and that the various phases are so interwoven
that separation is a tour de force for supposed educational
advantage. If we approach it from the viewpoint of the
applications of mathematics, we face at once the fact that
the various phases are or may be so interrelated that a
single application may involve at the same time arithmetic,
algebra, and geometry. If we approach the problem from the
viewpoint of direct values, we find that the study of arithme-
tic, algebra, and geometry separately, in sequence, and as
completely organized sciences is wasteful of time and energy
and little suited to the effective application of direct values.
Finally, if we approach the problem from the viewpoint of
indirect values, we find that the separation in learning of the
various phases of the science is one of the surest ways to
lessen conditions favorable for transfer. Current criticism
is sound in its insistence on a closer correlation of the depart-
ments of mathematics in the schools. It is not so sound when
it bases that correlation on direct and applied values alone.

(6) In common with other studies in the secondary school
mathematics suffers from its isolation. One of the surest

' ways in which transfer values may be materialized from the
study of mathematics is to see that methods, ideals, and the
like, exemplified in its study may also be exemplified in sub-
jects dealing with content material of a different sort and so
recognized by the pupil. Any number of examples afforded

502 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

must be of relatively little value unless application is made
in the fields where the application is desired. Until the
teacher of mathematics fully recognizes the fact that the
pupil, not the subject, is the unit to be considered and that
the mathematical experiences of the pupil constitute but a
small part of his total experiences, much of the value of the
study of mathematics must be lost. No education can be
successful unless the experiences of the individual are uni-
fied. The correlation of the work in mathematics with the
work in other subjects and with experiences outside the
school must be effected if the values of mathematics itself
are to be developed.

218. The order and position of mathematical studies.
The Committee of Ten recommended the earlier introduc-
tion of algebra and geometry, suggesting that certain ele-
ments of those subjects be introduced into the work of the
later grades of the elementary school. With the develop-
ment of plans for the reorganization of the school system,
particularly in connection with the junior-senior high-school
plan, emphasis has been placed on the earlier introduction
of some mathematics now commonly restricted to the later
grades. Reasons for this change are the following: (1) the
study of arithmetic is prolonged beyond desirable bounds
in the American schools; (2) a closer correlation between
arithmetic, algebra, and geometry is desirable; (3) many
boys and girls now leave school before they come into con-
tact with any forms of algebra and geometry; (4) those who
continue their education through the high school are delayed
in the acquirement of a valuable tool; (5) at present the only
opportunity to gain any knowledge of algebra or geometry
is that afforded through the study of either in the form of a
complete and logically organized science; (6) the change
from the familiar field of arithmetic to the higher mathe-
matics is too abrupt.

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 503

To ameliorate conditions implied in the reasons given for
the earlier introduction of algebra and geometry it has been
suggested that a course or courses in " composite " or " com-
bined " mathematics be provided in the junior high school
and that logically organized courses in algebra, geometry,
and other higher mathematics be reserved for the senior
high school. The course in " composite " mathematics in the
junior high school would then be organized so as to include
those elements of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry which
may be considered as of reasonably direct value to the aver-
age individual. Not only would such a course provide a
diagnostic or prognostic element for later mathematical
study and afford instruction in mathematical elements most
useful directly to the average person, but it would also pro-
vide whatever elements of number and space concepts or of
" mathematical language " may legitimately be expected to
result from some contact with algebra and geometry. In
the senior high school provision could then be made for the
systematic study of algebra, geometry, and other mathe-
matics by those mathematically inclined and mathematically
capable.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. Compare the organization of mathematical study in the American
schools, in Prussian higher schools, and in the French lycie.

2. Examine elementary textbooks in physics and chemistry to ascertain
the mathematical facts, principles, and processes necessary for ele-
mentary study in those fields. Do the same for more advanced study
in those fields.

3. What specific mathematical abilities are required of the machinist,
electrician, and similar artisans?

4. What specific mathematical abilities are required of the civil engineer?
— of the mechanical engineer? — of the mining engineer?

6. Make a list of the supra-arithmetical facts, principles, and processes of
mathematics that appear to be sufficiently applicable to the ordinary
affairs of life to warrant their inclusion in a course for average pupils
on the basis of their direct and practical values.

504 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

6. Examine any textbook in geometry and classify the materials presented
accordingly as (a) they deal with matters ordinarily accepted as valid
on the basis of general experience; (6) they deal with facts, principles,
or processes valuable for their application in science or occupations'
(c) they deal with facts, principles, or processes themselves not im
portant but forming the basis of important facts, principles, or
processes.

7. What are the arguments for and against the requirement of the study
of algebra on the part of all pupils? — geometry?

8. Trace the historical development of the study of mathematics in the
American secondary school.

9. Make a study of college admission requirements in mathematics.

10. What are the arguments for and against the study of algebra by girls?
— geometry?

11. Determine the correlation between ability to perform the formal oper-
ations in algebra and ability to perform applied problems.

12. Determine the correlation between ability to handle the propositions
of geometry and ability to handle "originals."

13. Determine the correlation of ability in arithmetic and ability in alge-
bra; between arithmetic and geometry; between algebra and geometry.

14. Determine the correlation between accuracy in handling algebra and
accuracy in copying a page of printed English.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Brown, J. C., and others, Curricula in Mathematics, Bureau of Education
Bulletin (1914), no. 45.

Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies, pp. 104-16 (Bureau
of Education edition).

Committee on Entrance Requirements in Mathematics, National Educa-
tion Association, Proceedings (1903), pp. 481 jf.

Committee on Secondary Mathematics, Report of Commission on the Reor-
ganization of Secondary Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin.

Evans, G. W., The Teaching of High-School Mathematics.

International Commission on the Teaching of Mathematics, Mathematics
in the Public and Private Secondary Schools of the United States, Bureau
of Education Bulletin (1911), no. 16.

Judd, C. H., The Psychology of High-School Subjects, chaps, n-vr.

Moore, E. C., "Does the Study of Mathematics Train the Mind Specifi-
cally or Universally?" School and Society, vol. vi, pp. 481-91.

National Committee of Fifteen on Geometry Syllabus, The Mathematics
Teacher, vol. v, no. 2 (December, 1912).

New England Association of Teachers of Mathematics, Report of Com-
mittee on Secondary School Mathematics, The Mathematics Teacher,
vol. vm, pp. 191-218.

THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 505

Rugg, H. O., The Experimented Determination of Mental Discipline in Softool
Studies.

Schorling, R., Kahler, F. A., and Miller, O. M., "The Place of Mathe-
matics in the High School," School Science and Mathematics, October,
1916.

Schultze, A., The Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools, pp. 15-29.

Smith, D. E., The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics, especially chaps,
vii and x.

Smith, D. E., The Teaching of Geometry, especially chaps, i-n.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xvm.

Yocum, A. D., "Mathematics as a Means to Culture and Discipline," The
Mathematics Teacher, vol. vi, pp. 135-57.

Young, J. W. A., The Teaching of Mathematics, chap. H.

Extended bibliography: Bibliography of the Teaching of Mathematics (1900"
12), Bureau of Education Bulletin (1912), no. 29.

CHAPTER XV

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THE
PROGRAM OF STUDIES

219. Historical development. Though some beginnings
were made in the study of the natural sciences in the second-
ary school through the sense-realism movement of the seven-
teenth century, no appreciable study of natural science
found a place in the secondary school until the latter part
of the eighteenth century, or even until the beginning of
the nineteenth century. Its real beginning was found in the
development of the realschule and academy as a part of the
expansion of the curriculum of the secondary school which
characterized those movements. In America no natural
science was found in the colonial grammar school. From the
inception of the academy movement, however, the natural
sciences found an increasingly important place in the second-
ary school. By the beginning of the high-school movement
the time was ripe for the introduction of natural science into
the program of the public secondary school.

In the first high school established (the Boston English
Classical School, opened in 1821) "natural philosophy
(physics), including astronomy" was required of all pupils
in the last year of the course. By the regulations of 1823-
24 natural philosophy was required in the second year of the
course in that school and " a course of experimental lectures
on the various branches of natural philosophy " in the last
year. In addition Blair's Elements of Arts and Sciences was
prescribed for the first year of the course. In the Girls' High
School of Boston (established in 1826) natural philosophy
was a prescribed study in the second year of the course,

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 507

chemistry in the third year, and botany was made an elective
study. No natural-science study was required by law in a
public high school until the prescription by the law of 1857
in Massachusetts. By this law high schools in that State
were required to give instruction in natural philosophy,
chemistry, and botany. In addition all high schools in towns
of four thousand inhabitants or over were required by that
law to provide instruction in astronomy and geology. Such
provisions remained in the statutes of Massachusetts until
1898 when all natural-science subjects were made permis-
sive. Interest in the study of the natural sciences developed
faster than the public high schools. Thus in 1840 (when
there were less than eighteen high schools in the State) 170
towns in Massachusetts claimed to provide instruction in
natural philosophy, 58 to provide instruction in astronomy,
and 57 to provide instruction in chemistry.

The entrance of natural sciences into the program of
studies of the public secondary school was in answer to the
interest in and the development of the natural sciences dur-
ing the first half of the nineteenth century. It must be
noted, however, that they were for the most part taught as
informational subjects and with little reference to their logical
organization as sciences in the technical sense of that term.
During the early period laboratory work was all but unknown
and little applied work was done except in experiments by
the teacher. With the possible exception of requirements
for certain courses in such colleges as the Lawrence Scientific
School at Harvard, the earliest recognition of a natural
science for college entrance was that of physical geography
at Harvard and Michigan in 1870. Natural philosophy was
first recognized for college entrance at Syracuse University
in 1873 and in 1876 entrance examinations were conducted
at Harvard in elementary botany, the rudiments of physics,
chemistry, and descriptive astronomy. Laboratory work

508 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

as a part of the study of natural science accepted for admis-
sion to college was first inaugurated at Harvard in 1887.

The study of the natural sciences during the second half
of the nineteenth century spread to almost all fields, so that,
during the last quarter of the century, numerous natural-
science subjects were found in different high schools and
practices were widely variable. Hence, in 1892-93 the Com-
mittee of Ten attempted to organize and standardize the
secondary-school work in the natural sciences. For the four
years of high-school work in the natural sciences it sug-
gested the following program.

TABLE CXXX*

Number of periods per week and proportion of time

recommended

Subject

Grade

English
course

Latin
scientific
course

Modern
language
course

Classical
course

Pe-

Per

Pe-

Per

Pe-

Per

Pe-

Per

riods

cent

riods

cent

riods

cent

riods

cent

per

ptr

week

time

week

time

week

time

week

time

Physical geography.

I
II

3
3

15.0
15.0

3
3

15.0
15.0

3
3

15.0
15.0

3
3

15.0
15.0

Botany or zoology . .

II
III)

3
( 1.5

15.0

7.5

3
1.5

15.0

7.5

3
1.5

15.0

7.5

0
0

0.0
0.0

IIU

{l.fi

7.5

1.5

7.6

1.5

7.5

0.0

15.0

Geology or physiog-

IV)

( 1.5

7.5

1.5

7.5

1.5

7.5

0.0

Anatomy, physiol-

ogy, hygiene

IV)

(1.8

7.5

1.5

7.5

1.5

7.5

0.0

Total natural

science

I-IV

22.5

H.3

* Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies, pp. 46—17 (Bureau of Education
edition). Compilation and arrangement by the author.

The recommendation of the Committee accomplished
much to organize the work in the natural sciences in the
secondary school: (1) it tended to standardize the sciences

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 509

to be studied; (2) it tended to standardize the order in which
the sciences should be studied; (3) it gave great impetus to
the study of the natural sciences as sciences with emphasis
on laboratory work; (4) it emphasized the study of some
natural science by every pupil. Some results of the recom-
mendations of that committee, however, were not so satis-
factory: (1) the committee failed to arrange the work so as
to meet the needs of pupils who left school before the close
of the course; (2) its recommendations tended to organize
the study of the natural sciences in terms of the subjects
rather than in terms of the capacities of the pupils and their
later needs; (3) it supported the study of several natural
sciences which were of questionable value (in a relative
sense) in the secondary school and which in later develop-
ment were discarded, at least as separate subjects of study,
e.g., astronomy, geology, meteorology; (4) it failed to recog-
nize the need of relating the study of the natural sciences
more directly to life, especially with reference to vocations.

The status of the study of natural sciences from 1890 to
1915 may be noted from the figures presented in Table
CXIX and from its accompanying graph illustrating the
trend of the secondary school program during those years.
From those figures it may be seen that the study of the
natural sciences has in some cases noticeably declined within
the past quarter-century. It must be remembered, however,
that applied forms of the natural sciences, not reported in
the table referred to, have markedly increased within that
period, e.g., agriculture, general science, etc., thus offsetting
largely the decline (real or apparent) in the study of the
natural sciences.

On the whole, three periods in the development of the
study of the natural science in the secondary school are to be
distinguished. During the first period (about 1800 to 1870)
the natural sciences were studied and organized largely as

510 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

informational courses. During the second period (about
1870 to 1900) the tendency was to organize the study of the
natural sciences according to the demands of pure science.
The third period (about 1900 to the present) has been char-
acterized by attempts to organize the study of natural
sciences in part according to their applications. This move-
ment, however, is as yet in its formative stage.

220. Present status. According to the latest returns
available (1914-15) the natural sciences are studied in
secondary schools to the extent indicated in the following
table.

TABLE CXXXI. PUPILS ENGAGED IN NATURAL-SCIENCE
STUDIES 1914-15*

Subjects

Public schools

Private schools

Att schools

Physical geog-
raphy . .

169,911
165,854
110,541
106,520
86,031
80,403
37,456
5,558
3,224

14.58%
14.23
9.48
9.14
7.38
6.90
3.21
.48
.28

19,318
18,572
17,802
11,673
12,485
4,936
4,437
2,032
2,543

15.37%
14.78
14.16
9.29
9.93
3.93
3.53
1.62
2.02

189,229
184,426
128,343
118,193
98,516
85,339
41,893
7,590
5,767

14.66%
14.28
9.94
9.15
7.63
6.61
3.24
.59
.45

Physics

Physiology
Botany

Chemistry

General biology .
Zoology. . .

Geology

Astronomy

* Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, pp. 487-89.

In the interpretation of these figures it may be noted:
(1) that certain sciences once popular (astronomy and geol-
ogy) have almost disappeared from the programs of the
public secondary schools; (2) that the relatively large num-
ber of pupils engaged in the study of physical geography is
in part explained by the fact that it is commonly taught in
the first year of the high school where about forty per cent
of all pupils are enrolled; (3) that botany, zoology, and

physiology are frequently combined in one course of " biol-
ogy," a fact which in part explains the relatively large num-
bers of pupils enrolled in those studies; (4) that the relatively
large enrollment in physiology is in part explained by the
fact that its study is a common form of legal prescription
demanded by "temperance" reformers and its teaching
or popularity is frequently more apparent than real; (5)
general science courses and special forms of applied-science
courses are not reported. An increasingly large number of
pupils is being enrolled in courses in " general science,"
agricultural science, domestic science, etc. In so far as there
may properly be said to be a usual course covering the four
years of high-school work in the natural sciences it appears
to be as follows : —

First year: Physical geography or general science;
Second year: Biology, or biological sciences of some sort;
Third year: Physics;
Fourth year: Chemistry.

Rarely more than one unit of science is required of all
pupils and the proportion of pupils who study natural sci-
ence for four full years is almost negligible.

TABLE CXXXII *

Entire course VI-0 I

Last four years
U 11-01

Total
periods per
week

Per cent
of time

Total
periods per
week

Per cent
of time

Gymnasium

18
29
36

5.9
9.4
11.7

8
19
24

5.7
13.3
16.8

Realgvmnasium

Oberrealschule

* Cf. Tables LXXXIV-LXXXVII.

PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

In Prussia the study of natural science is required of all
pupils throughout the entire course of the higher schools
for boys. The amount of time devoted to such study is indi-
cated in Table CXXXII. During the earlier years are
studied the biological sciences, corresponding roughly tc
"nature study." During the latter grades mineralogy,
physics, and chemistry are studied.

In French secondary schools for boys are taught zoology,
botany, geology, physics, chemistry, cosmography, anatomy
and physiology, paleontology, hygiene. Not all pupils,
however, study all those subjects. The general order of
natural-science studies in the French secondary schools for
boys may be seen from the following table.

TABLE CXXXJII. PERIODS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO NATURAL
SCIENCE IN THE FRENCH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS *

First cycle

Second cycle

Grades

III

P-M

rA 0

0 ,

f A 7. 5-9

(A 1

0 )

B 0

Divisions . . .

C 4.5

IB 2

2.5

2.5)

D 4.5

[B7.5-9

* Cf. Table CIV.

From this table it may be seen that it is possible for many
boys to pass through the secondary school in France without
any serious study of natural science, since the science offered
in the first cycle is largely an informational subject without
laboratory work. On the other hand, it is possible for boys
to receive intensive instruction in natural science in the
second cycle.

221. Values claimed for the natural sciences. Before
considering the values claimed for the various natural sci-

THE PLACE OF THE NATUEAL SCIENCES 513

ences as subjects of study in the secondary-school program
it is well to consider some of the claims made for the study of,
natural science in general. Probably the most thorough-
going claims that have ever been made for the values of the
study of the natural sciences are those of Spencer : —

Thus to the question with which we set out — What knowledge
is of most worth? — the uniform reply is — Science. This is the
verdict on all the counts. For direct self-preservation, or the
maintenance of life and health, the all-important knowledge is
— Science. For that indirect self-preservation which we call gain-
ing a livelihood, the knowledge of greatest value is — Science.
For the due discharge of parental functions, the proper guidance
is to be found only in — Science. For that interpretation of na-
tional life, past and present, without which the citizen cannot
rightly regulate his conduct, the indispensable key is — Science.
Alike for the most perfect production and highest enjoyment of
art in all its forms, the needful preparation is still — Science. And
for purposes of discipline — intellectual, moral, religious — the
most efficient study is, once more — Science. The question which
at first seemed so perplexed, has become, in the course of our in-
quiry, comparatively simple. We have not to estimate the degrees
of importance of different orders of human activity, and different
studies as severally fitting us for them ; since we find that the study
of science, in its most comprehensive meaning, is the best prepa-
ration for all these orders of activity.1

According to Spencer not only is science best fitted for
an education which is to give a knowledge of facts, but it is
also best fitted to develop the mental " faculties " • — a con-
clusion which he reaches by a most naive course of reasoning.

Having found what is best for the one end, we have by implica-
tion found what is best for the other. We may be quite sure that
the acquirement of those acts which are most useful for regulating
conduct, involves a mental exercise best fitted for strengthening the
faculties. It would be utterly contrary to the economy of Nature,
if one kind of culture were needed for the gaining of information
and another kind were needed as a mental gymnastic.2

1 Spencer, H., Education, chap, i, pp. 89-90. 2 Ibid., p. 79.

514 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Yet one thing more must be added to Spencer's worship
of "Science":

Not only for intellectual discipline is Science the best; but also
for moral discipline.

The discipline of Science is superior to that of our ordinary edu-
cation because of the religious culture that it gives. It is religious,
too, inasmuch as it generates a profound respect for, and an im-
plicit faith in, those uniform laws which underlie all things. By
accumulating experiences the man of science acquires a thorough
belief in the unchanging relations of phenomena — in the inevit-
able connection between cause and consequence — in the necessity
of good or evil results.1

These claims set up by Spencer for the values of the study
of the natural sciences are of particular interest because they
embody almost all the fallacies commonly employed by
over-enthusiastic proponents of the natural sciences. Those
fallacies deserve some special consideration.2

(1) Spencer employs the term "science" in at least
three different senses which he does not always take the
trouble to distinguish. At times he uses the term in a gen-
eric sense equivalent to all organized knowledge or " scien-
tific method"; at times he uses the term with reference to
the natural sciences in general; at times he employs the
term referring to a special science, natural, social, or psy-
chological. This confusion (at least for the reader) arises
from the fact that for Spencer the social sciences are bio-
logical and psychological, and that psychology is but one
phase of biology. Hence, without warning he skips lightly
from the use of the term in one sense to its use in another.
The "word-jingle" fallacy is thus involved.

(2) At many points Spencer's arguments involve a rather
thorough-going theory of faculty psychology.

1 Spencer, H., Education, pp. 84, 85, 87.

2 Cf . the general discussion of fallacies frequently involved in the analysis
of direct values, section 165.

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 515

(3) Attention has frequently been called to the fact that
Spencer failed to distinguish between subject matter of
great importance to the race and to civilization through a
limited number of individual specialists and subject-matter
valuable directly for all individuals — a failure to distin-
guish between values of use, consumption, or appreciation,
and values of technical knowledge, production, or accom-
plishment.

222. Spencer's fallacies perpetuated. The weaknesses
of Spencer's claims have been pointed out repeatedly and
the past decade or two has seen more careful analysis of the
values of the natural sciences as subjects of study in the
secondary school. Nevertheless writers of recent date have
perpetuated certain of his fallacies. For example, the failure
to distinguish between the need of scientific knowledges and
skills on the part of some and the need of those knowledges
and skills on the part of all is a constant error. Thus Mills : *

What is Chemistry? In what way does chemistry touch the life
of the average man? Will a knowledge of chemistry prove of bene-
fit to the ordinary laborer, or farmer, or mechanic, or business man?
Such questions have often been asked, and my almost invariable
reply to the questioner is, "Name anything about you with which
chemistry has nothing to do." It makes little difference as to the
reply — cloth, paper, glass, wood, brick, the body itself, the food
that we eat, and the earth upon which we walk — chemistry teaches
of the constitution of these bodies, of the way in which they are
made.

Here values of use, consumption, and appreciation must be
contrasted sharply with values of accomplishment, produc-
tion, and technical knowledge. The former are practically
universal: the latter are limited and contingent.

A second fallacy is even more subtle and cannot be illus-

1 Mills, J. E., p. 183 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High-School Education,
Quoted with the permission of the publishers, Charles Scribner's Sons.

516 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

trated by any single quotation. It is found in the tendency
by some writers to establish certain relatively universal
values in connection with a specific natural science, e.g.,
physiology, transfer those values to science in the generic
sense, and finally to extend those values to other sciences
with which they are but indirectly if at all connected. Thus
general values established in connection with biological
sciences are frequently transferred to material sciences.
A somewhat similar fallacy is involved when certain uni-
versal values which may be established for specific parts of
a science are extended to cover the entire field of that science
as organized into a logical whole.

The third important fallacy commonly involved in claims
for the values of the study of natural science is found in
dependence to an unjustifiable extent on a theory of trans-
fer, frequently involving an obsolete theory of faculty
psychology. In this respect the scientist has sinned even
more than the others against whom he has so frequently
charged error. So many direct and specifically practical
values can be shown for the natural sciences that one would
expect to find the advocates of the study of natural science
sedulously avoiding the pitfalls which have enticed the advo-
cates of subjects of less practical application. However,
such is not the case. Thus of biology, which of all the sci-
ence subjects least requires support from a theory of trans-
fer values, Pearse says:

For those who still question the value of biology, it is easy to find
answers. From the point of view of mental training, the proper
study of living things offers an excellent field for (1) gathering first-
hand knowledge, (2) gaining clear ideas, (3) making concrete
analyses, (4) using the mind for abstraction and discrimination,
(5) seeing resemblances, (6) forming general concepts, and (7) giv-
ing logical definitions.

. . . Biology has a special function in training, in that it has for
its subject-matter living organisms whose varying and uncertain

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 517

behavior train the judgment of youth better to understand the
behavior of men. It certainly exercises the judgment in a different
way than do the exact sciences of physics and chemistry.1

And Eliot:

The student of natural science scrutinizes, touches, weighs,
measures, analyzes, dissects, and watches things. By these exer-
cises his powers of observation and judgment are trained, and he
acquires the precious habit of observing the appearances, trans-
formations, and processes of nature.2

Or Bigelow:

The disciplinary value of the study of zoology, as indeed of any
other science, is found in that it may contribute to the development
of a scientific attitude of mind, by directing various mental proc-
esses, such as those involved in scientific observing, classifying
facts, exercising judgment and discrimination, and learning to
appreciate demonstrated knowledge.3

These fallacies must be carefully guarded against in
attempting to analyze the values of the study of natural
sciences in the secondary school.

223, Preliminary analysis of the values claimed. In an
analysis of the values claimed for the study of the natural
sciences in the secondary school we may consider them under
two general heads: (1) those values which are claimed to
arise from the direct and specific use of the facts and proc-
esses of the natural sciences in everyday life, in various
vocations, and in the pursuit of other studies; (2) those
values which are claimed to arise indirectly from the study
of the natural sciences through the development of scientific
concepts or generalized mental functions. Either of these
groups of values claimed may again be subdivided. Thus
under the head of direct and specific values may be con-

1 Pearse, A. S., p. 199 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High-School Education.

2 Eliot, C. W., Educational Reform, p. 110.

3 Lloyd, F. E., and Bigelow, M. A., Tlie Teaching of Biology, p. 244.

518 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

sidered : (a) the values of the study of the natural sciences
as measured by the directly practical application of their
facts, principles, and processes to those affairs of life which
are common to all people whatever be their special activ-
ities; (6) the values of the study of the natural sciences as
measured by the directly practical applications of their facts,
principles, and processes to special vocations or special
phases of certain vocations; (c) the values of the study of
the natural sciences as measured by the direct applications
of their facts, principles, and processes to other studies.
Under the head of indirect and general values may be con-
sidered: (a) those claimed to rise from the development of
scientific concepts such as natural law and the like; (6) those
values claimed to arise from the transfer or spread to other
fields of improved efficiency gained in and through the study
of natural sciences. In the following sections will be con-
sidered seriatim:

(1) Direct and specific values: (a) universal "practical" values;
(6) specific vocational values; (c) direct propaedeutic values.

(2) Indirect and general values: (a) conceptual values; (6) general
transfer values.

224. Natural science in the affairs of everyday life. The
values of scientific information and skill are so readily
recognized in terms of their applications to the affairs of
everyday life that one is easily led into one or all of three
common fallacies which were outlined at some length in
Chapter XI; 1 (1) the fallacy of estimating values of the.
study of natural science (especially of inorganic science)
in terms of the important part played by natural science in
modern life and the failure to recognize that the great con-
tributions of science must come to the race through a rela-
tively small number of specialists; (2) the fallacy of failing

1 Section 165.

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 519

to recognize the difference between values of utilization,
consumption, or appreciation and values of technical knowl-
edge, accomplishment, and production; (3) the fallacy of
failing to recognize that the same direct values do not attach
to any science as a logically organized whole or to all parts
of a single science, which properly attach to some parts of
that science. The result of employing such fallacies is a
failure to distinguish between universal and limited or con-
tingent direct values, with a consequent tendency to over-
emphasize universal values of a direct character. The dis-
cussion of these fallacies in Chapter XI renders unnecessary
further consideration here.

When we interpret the direct values of the study of nat-
ural sciences in terms of the need of their facts, principles,
and processes in the activities of the average individual we
find some measure of the relative values of the several
natural sciences and of the relative importance of various
parts of the special sciences. Thus, doubtless, interpreted
in such terms, certain biological sciences (e.g., physiology
and hygiene) should be assigned relatively greater direct
value than certain inorganic sciences (e.g., physics), since all
individuals, being biological organisms, should have some
knowledge of biological facts, principles, and processes if
health is to be conserved. Likewise, interpreting values in
such terms we should not hesitate to recognize that certain
facts, principles, and processes of physics or chemistry have
far greater direct value than others. From the standpoint
of direct values for most people in the affairs of ordinary
life the study of natural sciences must be considered in
terms of their utilization, consumption, and appreciation.
Such values are practically universal but emphasize special
elements only in the study of the sciences. For the natural
sciences organized into logically constituted wholes no uni-
versal direct values can be claimed for most people in the

520 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ordinary affairs of life. It is, of course, recognized that for
numerous affairs in which different groups of individuals
actively participate the contingent values of the study of
certain natural sciences are high. This, however, involves
the training of special groups rather than all pupils hi the
secondary school.

225. Direct values for vocations. The direct and specific
applications of the facts, principles, and processes of various
natural sciences to special vocations are so obvious that
they require little more than mention in the present discus-
sion. The extended applications of science to manufacture
and agriculture within recent years have placed greater and
greater emphasis on the vocational values of the study of
natural science in the secondary school. Little need be said
here otherwise than to note that we are dealing in this con-
nection with limited values in the sense that they are to be
determined with reference to special groups and with con-
tingent values in the sense that they are to be estimated
according to the likelihood that various scientific facts,
principles, and processes will "function" in the several voca-
tions which secondary-school pupils will enter. In this con-
nection we must remember that the increased application of
natural science to manufacture and agriculture has been
paralleled by a tendency toward greater specialization of
labor, so that, while the applications of natural science in
those fields have grown more important and more numer-
ous, a grasp of the facts, principles, and particularly the
processes of natural science is demanded by laboratory
specialists only. In any industry the specialists furnish the
scientific knowledges and skills while the workers in general
merely follow standardized directions. This is true to a far
greater extent in manufacture than in agriculture where
independent workers are more numerous. Even in agricul-
ture, however, — where, it is to be noted, the organic sci-

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 521

ences are the more important, — what is needed is largely a
scientific intelligence to utilize information supplied by the
specialist.

226. Propaedeutic values. Direct propaedeutic values of
the study of natural science are obvious for those who are
destined to pursue their scientific studies along advanced
lines. This is, of course, particularly true for those who are
destined to enter higher forms of technological, agricul-
tural, medical, or other scientific pursuits. Such groups of
pupils are relatively small though important. Here, again,
the values found must be considered limited and contin-
gent.

227. Conceptual values claimed. For lack of a more con-
venient term the term "conceptual" is here applied to those
values of the study of natural science which are claimed to
arise from the development of such broad concepts as the
unity of phenomenaLnature, the interrelation of natural and
social phenomena, natural law, standards of naturalism and
super-naturalism of reality and superstition, ideals of order
and system in nature, cause and effect relations in the world
of nature, biological evolution, etc. Any real understanding
of modern life and thought is impossible without some under-
standing of those comprehensive concepts which have devel-
oped for the most part through the study of natural science.
It is not to be conceived that the development and use of
such concepts are solely the prerogath es of the philosopher
or highly trained scientist. In science the instrument was
created by which man can be freed from the bondage of
superstition. The world has been freed from the shackles
of necromancy, alchemy, witchcraft, astrology, animism,
and numerous other errors of understanding through a
knowledge and use of natural science. It requires, however,
but little observation and imagination to recognize that just
as serious errors enslave the thought and action of man at

522 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

the present day and that large numbers of men and women
are seriously misled through superstition and appearances.
The point has been stated well by De Garmo : *

Let us call to witness the baseless terrors arising from erroneous
belief regarding natural causes, the needless famines, diseases, and
devastating pestilences that have afflicted mankind, and then the
more lamentable perversion of noble human qualities themselves
through blind adherence to authority, or by the injection into hu-
man affairs of the devils generated by ignorance of natural law,
as in witchcraft or in the Spanish inquisition, thus poisoning the
mind with the ptomaines of its own diseased thinking.

One must indeed be an optimist not to believe that super-
stition and ignorance of natural causes play havoc in the
thought and action of millions of men and women in civi-
lized society in the present as in the past.

228. Transfer values claimed. Advocates of the study of
natural science, as proponents of other studies in the sec-
ondary school, have constantly emphasized its transfer
values. In many cases it is held that by the study of natural
science such assumed general powers, capacities, or faculties
of the mind as observation, discrimination, accuracy, mem-
ory, imagination, reasoning, may be so trained as to func-
tion with improved efficiency in non-scientific fields. In so
far as such claims involve (as they sometimes do) a theory
of faculty psychology they must be ruled out of court at
once on the ground that modern psychology recognizes no
such general and independent faculties as memory, observa-
tion, etc. However, the abandonment of such a theory does
not mean that certain forms of efficiency developed in and
through the study of natural science cannot have effect on
fields of study and situations of a non-scientific character.
Recent attempts to analyze the transfer values claimed for

1 De Garmo, C., Principles of Secondary Education: The Studies, p. 55.
Cf. White, A. D., The Warfare of Science and Theology.

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 523

the study of natural science have to some extent avoided
the fallacies prominent in earlier analyses.1

The fundamental problems involved in the transfer values
of the study of natural science are the same as those in-
volved in the transfer values of other studies, particularly in
mathematics. They have already been considered at some
length in Chapter XI. The conclusions there reached were:
(a) that the transfer or spread of improved efficiency is
possible; (6) that the method of transfer depends on the
ordinary laws of dissociation; (c) that the extent of such
transfer depends on the degree in which materials are organ-
ized and presented so as to make conditions favorable for
dissociation. Keeping these conclusions in mind we may
consider their application to the question of transfer values
in the case of natural-science study.

No one can question that valuable mental traits (employ-
ing that term in the generic sense) are exercised and devel-
oped by the study of natural science. No one can doubt that
mental traits of the same generic quality are employed
extensively in non-scientific situations in life. Ideals and
habits of accuracy, achievement, proof, persistency, open-
mindedness, honesty, and the like, are very real common
factors in the field of natural science and in other fields:
methods of problem solving, " scientific method," etc., are
common elements exemplified in connection with data of all
sorts : the same human mind with its capacity for generaliza-
tion is a common element in all intellectual enterprises.
The materials and means for transfer are provided in the
study of natural science.

Subjects of study differ widely in the degree in which they
lend themselves to organization and manipulation for pur-

1 For example, Twiss, G. R., pp. 453-59 of Monroe, P. (Editor), The
Principles of Secondary Education; Mann, C. R., The Teaching of Physics,
pp. 171-96.

524 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

poses of fostering conditions favorable to the processes of
dissociation. Among those subjects whose materials may
readily be manipulated for this purpose the natural sciences
occupy a prominent position along with mathematics. The
degree of transfer values to be achieved through the study
of natural science must depend on the organization of ma-
terials and the methods employed. When a science is organ-
ized and taught with emphasis on direct values alone or
primarily the minimum of transfer values is to be expected.
Transfer values are always potential and their achievement
is not always automatic. The maximum of transfer values
will be achieved when the materials are organized for that
purpose and the methods of presentation purposely adapted
to the development of those values. Direct values and indi-
rect values cannot both be at their maximum at the same
time and with the same organization of teaching materials
and methods.

The most important element of transfer values commonly
claimed for the study of natural science comprises that
methodology in intellectual enterprises which goes under the
name of " scientific method." This, according to Pearson,
is marked by (1) careful and accurate classification of facts
and observation of their correlation and sequence; (2) the
discovery of scientific laws by aid of the creative imagina-
tion; (3) self-criticism and the final touchstone of equal
validity for all normally constituted minds.1

The scientific method of examining facts is not peculiar to one
class of phenomena and to one class of workers; it is applicable to
social as well as to physical problems, and we must carefully guard
ourselves against supposing that the scientific frame of mind is a
peculiarity of the professional scientist. Now this frame of mind
seems to me an essential of good citizenship, and of the several
ways in which it can be acquired few surpass the careful study of

1 Pearson, K., The Grammar of Science, p. 37.

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 525

some one branch of natural science. The insight into method and
the habit of dispassionate investigation which follow from acquaint-
ance with the scientific classification of even some small range of
natural facts, give the mind an invaluable power of dealing with
other facts as the occasion arises.1

229. The values and aims of " general science." Until
recent years the only provision for science instruction in
the secondary school was provision for a number of isolated
unit courses in physics, chemistry, physiology, botany, and
the like. Each of those courses was organized on the basis
of the logical relations demanded by the subject-matter of
the special science involved without reference to the psy-
chological needs of the learner or the situations in which he
would apply the knowledges and skills acquired in its study.
Recently, however, there has developed the practice of
providing a course in "general" or "elementary" science.
Several considerations have led to the development of such
a course. Among these the most important are the following:

(1) There is need for a course in natural science which is
elementary and introductory. The study of natural science
in the school differs from some of the studies with which it is
grouped in the secondary school in that its development in
various fields has led to more or less isolated studies which
have no elementary or introductory study as compared with
mathematics, the language studies, or even the social stud-
ies. There are elementary or introductory courses in bot-
any, physical geography, physics, biology, and chemistry,
but no real introductory course in natural science which
may serve either to give a general view of natural phenomena
or as a diagnostic factor for later scientific study.

(2) The present organization of natural-science studies
makes it practically impossible for the pupil to come into
any contact with certain fields of science unless he remains

1 Pearson, K., The Grammar of Science, pp. 6-7.

526 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

in school throughout the course. The pupil who leaves school
at the close of the elementary school as at present organized
has opportunity to come into contact with such elements of
nature study and physiology only as are provided in the
elementary school. The pupil who leaves school before the
last two years of high-school work cannot under ordinary
circumstances come into any contact with physics and chem-
istry. Further, the pupil who remains in school throughout
the secondary course has no opportunity to study physics
or chemistry except as an intensive subject. It is a case of
all or nothing in any field of natural science.

(3) In earlier days the natural sciences were taught in the
secondary school largely as informational subjects so that
the pupil was provided an opportunity to learn something
concerning natural phenomena without elaborate technical
work in the laboratory. Beyond doubt certain values of the
study of natural sciences were greatly increased by the
introduction of laboratory work. The change was not, how-
ever, an unconditioned gam, as may be observed from the
diminished interest in the study of physics and chemistry
since instruction in those sciences was made to involve labo-
ratory work by pupils in the secondary school. The informa-
tional courses previously provided were very attractive to
secondary-school pupils. The laboratory courses now pro-
vided have proved unattractive.1 Two remedies suggest
themselves, (a) A course in general science not overbur-
dened by insistence on technical laboratory work may pro-
vide science study for those who will not become special-
ists and for some may awaken such an interest in science
study as to lead to more intensive study in later science
courses, (b) It is a tenable thesis that better results for the
total pupil body would be secured if the courses in physics

1 Cf. Table CXIX and Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education.
p. 231.

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 527

and chemistry were so organized that laboratory work be
provided for those needing that work for extended study or
college admission and for those sufficiently interested in that
side of science work, but also that pupils be allowed to study
physics and chemistry without necessarily engaging ir
laboratory work, at least to the extent at present required.

(4) There is need for a course in natural science not
restricted in its scope to a single field organized as a logical
and exclusive unit, but touching many fields at those points
where an acquaintance with the phenomena of nature is
valuable directly to the individual. In a preceding section
it was pointed out that the direct values of the study of the
natural sciences, particularly of the inorganic sciences, as
logically organized wholes are limited and contingent.
While this is true of those sciences as units it does not hold
true of certain facts, principles, and processes which form
parts of the several sciences. Some of the facts, principles,
and processes of the various natural sciences are valuable
for practically all pupils directly. It is an essential principle
underlying the organization of a course in general science
that the inclusion and organization of the subject-matter
shall be determined (a) by the demands of the learning proc-
ess peculiar to pupils of the appropriate stage of develop-
ment, (6) by the importance of the various facts, principles,
and processes of the several sciences to the average individ-
ual in the ordinary activities of life as engaged in by all.

If the needs implied in the above are to be realized it is
clear that the course or courses in general science should
be begun rather early in the secondary school, preceded by
some contact with the phenomena of nature in the element-
ary school. In all probability the proper place for courses
in general science is in the junior high school. In the senior
high school may then follow such intensive courses in such
special fields as biology, physics, and chemistry, organized

528 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDAEY EDUCATION

as logical wholes. A course in general science properly organ-
ized in the junior high school should lead some pupils to
greater interest in the natural sciences in the senior high
school.

230. The aims of natural science instruction. The aims
of instruction in natural science in the secondary school
should be the development of values previously outlined.
In specific terms^hey may be considered in the following:

(1) General science: The aims of instruction in general
science are to provide opportunity for acquaintance by the
pupils with the facts, principles, and processes of natural
phenomena in such a way as to furnish them with some
means of understanding the elementary laws of nature which
are necessary for healthy, intelligent, and efficient living.
At some length the guiding principles have been well stated
by Snedden: l

1. The primary purpose of general science instruction for
youths from twelve to sixteen years of age should be to eluci-
date, to explain, and to interpret, in degree appropriate to
the youth and modest demands of these learners, and by
means of genuine and vivid experience, the important facts
and simple principles of accessible natural phenomena and of
significant and easily comprehended applications of science
to human well-being.

2. Secondary purposes, which are to be definitely subordinated
in teaching processes, and to be realized, if at all, only as by-
products, are: (a) The intellectual grasp of underlying prin-
ciples and laws; (6) the mastery, as working ideal and specific
habit (as opposed to appreciation and intellectual compre-
hension) of any department of scientific method; and (c) the
mastery for use in a practical or vocational sense (as distin-
guished from development of appreciation) of scientific
knowledge or technique.

3. The scope or range of natural phenomena and cases of applied
science to be included in a program of general science instruc-

1 Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, pp. 255-62.

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 529

tion should be great — theoretically as great as all the avail-
able resources of human knowledge, and limited only by the
capacity of the learner and the accessibility of the materials.

4. The whole program of general science instruction must be
very extensive, to the end that from the standpoint of any one
school or teacher or grade or pupil it may be almost indefi-
nitely flexible.

5. ... in the present state of educational knowledge it is un-
wise, harmful, and even impertinent for educational theorists
to delimit particular divisions of general science, or principles
or topics therein, as being of relatively superior importance.

6. It is indispensable, once the aims of general science teaching
are acceptably formulated, that the wealth of materials avail-
able should be organized into suitable teaching units, each unit
presupposing a fair assignment of time, method of attack, and
result to be mastered.

7. Qualitatively, instruction in general science must not aim at
exhaustiveness of knowledge, mastery of abstract principle or
formula, capacity for detailed expression, or power to make
definite application.

(2} Other sciences : The special natural sciences provided
in the senior high school should aim at intensive study of
those subjects as logically organized studies by those pupils
only who manifest special interest, special ability, or voca-
tional need. The specific aims must be determined by the
values previously considered.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. Analyze the activities of the home which call for natural-science
knowledge and analyze the knowledges called for.

2. Analyze the knowledge of natural science valuable for the skilled
worker in metal industries.

3. What knowledge of natural science is of value to the carpenter?

4. What knowledge of electricity is necessary for the average man or
woman? — for the average factory worker? — for a man engaged in
electric wiring, etc.?

5. What knowledge of chemistry is suitable for the ordinary farmer? —
for the housekeeper? — for the pharmacist?

530 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

6. What are the arguments for and against providing a course in chemistry
or physics without laboratory work, assuming that laboratory work is
still provided for special groups of pupils?

7. Outline arguments for and against an introductory course in "general"
science to be taken by all pupils.

8. Examine and criticize claims made by various writers for the study of
any given natural science in the secondary school.

9. In' any secondary-school textbook in chemistry analyze the relative
importance attached to various phases of the subject. How would you
rearrange and reapportion the material for a class of pupils who will
not study chemistry further? Do the same for physics or biology.

10. Make a list of scientific concepts which you believe every secondary-
school graduate should have acquired.

11. Outline definitely transfer values which you believe may be found in
the study of any given natural science.

12. Criticize Spencer's arguments for the values of the study of science.
(Cf. Spencer, H., Education, chapter i.)

13. Criticize Huxley's discussion of the values of science study. (Cf.
Huxley, T., Science and Education, chaps, iv-vi.)

14. In any high school make a study of the amount of natural science
study engaged in by members of several "classes" in their high-school
courses.

15. For any college make a study of the units of natural science study pre-
sented by candidates for admission to college.

16. Compare the relative values of "pure" and "applied" science.

SELECTED REFERENCES
I. General:

> Barber, F. D., "Fundamental Considerations in the Reorganization
of High-School Science," School Review, vol. xxiv, pp. 124-34.

Coulter, J. G., "Proposed Status of Science Instruction in the
Junior-Senior High School organization," Educational Administra-
tion and Supervision, vol. i, pp. 639-45.

Eliot, C. W., Changes Needed in American Secondary Education,
Occasional Papers no. 2, Publications of the General Education
Board.

Huxley, T., Science and Education, especially chaps, rv-vi.

Judd, C. H., The Psychology of High-School Subjects, chap. xiv.

Pearson, K., Grammar of Science.

Spencer, H., Education, chap. i.

Twiss, G. R., chap, xn of Monroe, P. (Editor), Principles of Second-
ary Education.

Twiss, G. R., A Textbook of the Principles of Science Teaching.

II. Biological sciences:

Caldwell, O. W. (Chairman), "A Consideration of the Principles

that should determine the Courses in Biology in Secondary

Schools," Report of a Committee, School Science and Mathematics,

vol. EX, pp. 241^17.

Caldwell, O. W., Galloway, T. W., and Norris, H. W., "An Inves-
tigation of the Teaching of Biological Subjects in Secondary

Schools," School Science and Mathematics, vol. rx, pp. 581-97.
Coulter, J. M., "Botany as a Factor in Education," School Review,

vol. xii, pp. 609-17.
Forbes, S. A., "Economic and Industrial Aspects of Secondary

School Biology," School Science and Mathematics, vol. v, pp. 173-

83.
Forbes, S. A., "The Pedagogical Value of Zoology," Educational

Review, vol. I, pp. 328-36.
Hunter, G. W., "The Methods, Content, and Purpose of Biologic

Science in the Secondary Schools of the United States," School

Science and Mathematics, vol. x, pp. 1-10, 103-11.
Linville, H. R., "Old and New Ideals in Biology. Teaching," School

Science and Mathematics, vol. x, pp. 210-16.
Linville, H. R., et al., "The Practical Use of Biology," School Science

and Mathematics, vol. rx, pp. 121-30.
Lloyd, F. E., and Bigelow, M. A., The Teaching of Biology in the

Secondary School, pp. 7-24, 62-80, 241-60.
National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization

of Secondary Education, Report of Committee on Biology, School

Science and Mathematics, vol. xvi, pp. 501-17.
Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xx.

III. Chemistry:

Allen, J. H., "The Value of Chemistry as a High-School Subject,"
School Science and Mathematics, vol. x, pp. 721-31, 788-800
(Nov.-Dec., 1910).

Blanchard, A. A., "Elementary Chemistry as a Means of Develop-
ing the Power of Independent Scientific Reasoning," School Sci-
ence and Mathematics, vol. x, pp. 382-87 (May, 1910).

Dennis, L. M., et al., "What Kind of Chemistry Shall be Taught
in the High School and How Shall it be Most Effectively
Taught?" Proceedings of the New York State Associated Principals
(1902), pp. 439-54.

Geer, W. C., "The Teaching of Chemistry in the Secondary Schools:
A Study of Recent Practice and Results," School Review, vol. xiv,
pp. 275-95.

Morgan, W. C., "What Should Science Contribute to General
Education?" School Science and Mathematics, vol. vm, pp. 1-9.

532 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Smith, A., and Hall, E. H., The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics
in the Secondary Schools, pp. 5-48.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xix.

Symposium on High School Chemistry, "The Purpose and Organi-
zation of Chemistry Teaching in Secondary Schools," a series of
papers in School Science and Mathematics, vols. ix and x, espe-
cially vol. EX, pp. 658-65, vol. x, pp. 18-21.

Wade, F. B., "The Purpose and Method of the Chemistry Course
in the Public High School" School Science and Mathematics
(April, 1910), pp. 299-303.

IV. Geography:

Chamberlain, J. F. (Chairman), Report of the Committee on Second-
ary School Geography, Proceedings of the National Education Asso-
ciation (1909), pp. 820-28.

Dodge, R. E., "Geography for Secondary Schools," Journal of
Geography, vol. vi, pp. 241-54, 273-75.

Hubbard, G. D., "Geography in the Secondary School," Proceedings

of the National Education Association (1908), pp. 978-84.
V. Physics:

Avery, L. B., et al., Symposium on the "Purpose and Organization
of Physics Teaching in Secondary Schools," a series of papers
in vols. vin and ix of School Science and Mathematics.

Guthe, K. E., "Some Reforms Needed in the Teaching of Physics,"
Science, vol. xxxi, pp. 1 ff.

Hall, E. H., Part n of Smith, A., and Hall, E. H., The Teaching of
Chemistry and Physics in the Secondary School.

Mann, C. R., The Teaching of Physics, pp. 170-96.

Mann, C. R., "The Aims and Tendencies in Physics Teaching,"
School Science and Mathematics, vol. vi, pp. 723-30.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xix.

Spaulding, F. B., "The Culture Aim in Physics Teaching," School
Science and Mathematics, vol. x, pp. 14-17.

Spaulding, F. B., " What Knowledge (of Physics) is of Most Worth? "
School Science and Mathematics, vol. viu, pp. 674-79.

VI. General Science:

Barber, F. D., "The Present Status and Real Meaning of General
Science," School Review, vol. xxm, pp. 9-24.

Briggs, T. H., "General Science in Secondary Schools," Teachers
College Record, vol. xvn, pp. 19 ff.

Coulter, J. G., "Present Tendencies in Teaching Elementary
Science," Educational Review, vol. LIT, pp. 357-71.

Eikenberry, W. L., "Some Facts about the General Science Situ-
ation," School Review, vol. xxm, pp. 181-91.

General Science Quarterly.

THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 533

Massachusetts State Committee on General Science, General Science
Bulletin, Preliminary Draft, General Science Quarterly, vol. i,
pp. 37-46, 88-101, 180-88, 228-32.

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganiza-
tion of Secondary Education, Report of Committee on Science,
Bureau of Education Bulletin.

Quickstad, N. J., " Some Phases of the General Science Problem,"
General Science Quarterly, vol. i, pp. 153-61.

Roecker, W. F., "An Elementary Course hi General Science: Con-
tent and Method," School Science and Mathematics, vol. xiv, pp.
755-69.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xxi.

School Review, vol. xxv, pp. 453-60, "Review of Current Literature
on General Science." (Summarizes aims, arguments for and
against, etc.)

Webb, H. A., "A Quantitative Analysis of General Science,"
School Science and Mathematics, vol. xvn, pp. 534-45.

Extended bibliography: Bibliography of Science Teaching, Bureau
of Education, Bulletin (1911), no. 1. "Bibliography of General
Science," General Science Quarterly, vol. i, pp. 146-52.

CHAPTER XVI

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES IN THE PROGRAM
OF STUDIES

231. Historical position in the program. While much
ancient history, chronology, geography, and mythology was
doubtless taught in connection with the classical study of
the Latin grammar school, no social science as such was
studied in America until the beginning of the academy move-
ment. In the middle of the eighteenth century Franklin
recommended the extensive study of history and geography
in the academy which he proposed and which was founded
at that time. By the beginning of the nineteenth century
those studies had attained some prominence in the acade-
mies and by the beginning of the high-school movement
in the third decade of the nineteenth century history and
geography had attained a permanent position in the pro-
gram of the American secondary school.

By the Massachusetts law of 1827, which marked the
real beginning of the public high school, geography was
prescribed for elementary schools, United States history
for all high schools, and "history" (other than that of the
United States) for all high schools in larger cities. Stimu-
lated by the academy movement and by such influences as
the Massachusetts law above mentioned the study of geogra-
phy and history developed even more rapidly than the pub-
lic high schools themselves. Thus, in Massachusetts, where
there were not more than a dozen high schools at the time,
out of 294 towns reporting in 1837 to the State Department,
209 towns claimed to offer United States history in their
schools and 94 towns claimed to offer other forms of history.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 535

Likewise in 1838-39 "political science" was a subject
claimed to be offered in 29 towns. In 1842 Horace Mann
reported that 10,177 pupils in Massachusetts were engaged
in the study of United States history and 2571 were engaged
in the study of "general history." Equally noticeable was
the development of courses in history in the academies of
New York State.1

By the beginning of the second half of the nineteenth
century the study of geography had been relegated for the
most part to the elementary school, the study of history in
many forms had found a permanent place in the program of
the public high school, colleges had begun to prescribe his-
tory as a requirement for admission (Harvard and Michi-
gan in 1847), and in some high schools "political science"
or "political economy " had appeared in the program, "polit-
ical philosophy" having appeared in the program of the
Boston English Classical (High) School in 1821. During
the latter half of the nineteenth century the study of history,
and to a much less extent of other social sciences, continued
to develop. The development of the social sciences in the
secondary school from 1890 to the present has already been
indicated in Table CXIX.

In 1893 the Committee of Ten on Secondary School
Studies recommended the study of history for all pupils
during the first year of high-school work and at other
points in the course, the tune being distributed as shown
in Table CXXXIV.

Such an assignment of time and arrangement of courses
did not, however, meet the recommendations of the sub-
committee on *' history, civil government, and political
economy," which provided for an eight-year or a six-year
course in social studies as in Table CXXXV.

1 Russell, W. F., "The Entrance of History into the Curriculum of the
Secondary School," The History Teacher's Magazine, vol. v, pp. 313 jf.

536 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
TABLE CXXXIV *

High-
school
grade

Classical
course

Latin-
scientific
course

Modern

language
course

English
course

Number

( I

Periods

i m

per week

3 (elective)

Total

7 or 10

6 or 9

Per cent total

8 4 or 12 5

7 SOT 11 3

7 5 or 11 3

16 25

* Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies (Bureau of Education edition),
pp. 46-47.

TABLE CXXXV *

Grade

Eighth/ear course

Six-year course

III

Biography and mythology.

American history and elements
of civil government.

Greek and Roman history with
their Oriental connections.

French history. (To be so taught
as to elucidate the general
movement of mediaeval and
modern history.)

English history. (To be so
taught as to elucidate the
general movement of medi-
seval and modern history.)

American history.

A special period, studied in an
intensive manner; and civil
government.

Biography and mythology.
Biography and mythology.

American history, and civil gov-
ernment.

Greek and Roman history, with
their Oriental connections.

English history. (To be so
taught as to elucidate the
general movement of medi-
aeval and modern history.)

American history and civil gov-
ernment.

* Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies (Bureau of Education edition),
pp. 163-64.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 537

The same sub-committee recommended:*

That formal instruction in political economy be omitted from
the school program; but that economic subjects be treated in
connection with other pertinent subjects. . . . That to Ameri-
can history in the first group of studies be added the elements
of civil government.

Neither the report of the Committee of Ten nor the report
of its sub-committee on the social sciences succeeded hi
creating a desirable amount of order out of the chaos which
had previously existed in the study of the social sciences:
hence in 1896 a committee was appointed by the American
Historical Association "to consider the subject of history hi
the secondary schools and to draw up a scheme of college
entrance requirements hi history." That committee made
a survey of the current practices in the teaching of history
hi about 260 representative secondary schools hi the
country. It reported in 1898:

The subjects in the order of their frequency are: (1) English and
American history, taught in more than half the schools; (2) "Gen-
eral history," taught in almost exactly half the schools; (3) Greek
and Roman history, taught in about hah* the schools; (4) Euro-
pean history taught in about one third of the schools, the three
forms — mediaeval, modern, and French history — being about
equally common. In a very few schools the history of the state in
which they are situated is a subject. The favorite topics are, there-
fore, English and American history, usually both taught in the
same school ; Greek and Roman history, usually both taught in the
same school; and some form of what is commonly called "general
history." 2

... In general four different systems (of the order of subjects)
have been followed: (1) About one third of the schools follow the

1 Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies (Bureau of
Education), pp. 162-63.

2 Committee of Seven, The Study of History in Schools (The Macmillan
Company print), p. 139.

538 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

chronological method, taking up in succession ancient history,
general history, and modern history in some form, usually English
or American or both; ... (2) A much smaller number of schools,
perhaps a seventh of the whole, prefer the order — general, ancient,
and modern; ... (3) The third method begins with American, or
sometimes with English history, and then takes general history,
bringing in ancient history last. About one fifth of the schools
reporting use this system; ... (4) A fourth method, which pre-
vails in more than a quarter of the schools, is that of beginning with
American history, following with ancient history and ending with a
general course; . . . To make the generalization in broader form:
the returns from a body of schools most interested in the subject of
history show that one half prefer to begin high-school work with
the history nearest to the pupils in experience, and then to take up
wider choices, while one third have the chronological system, and
the remainder begin with the general survey of the field. 1

The same committee recommended a four-years' high-
school course as follows: 2

As a thorough and systematic course of study, we recommend
four years of work, beginning with ancient history and ending with
American history. For these four years we propose the division of
the general field into four blocks or periods, and recommend that
they be studied in the order in which they are here set down, which
in large measure accords with the natural order of events, and
shows the sequence of historical facts.

(1) Ancient history, with special reference to Greek and Roman
history, but including also a short introductory study of the more
ancient nations. This period should also embrace the early Middle
Ages, and should close with the establishment of the Holy Roman
Empire (800) or with the death of Charlemagne (814), or with the
treaty of Verdun (843).

(2) Mediaeval and modern European history, from the close of
the first period to the present tune.

(3) English history.

(4) American history and civil government.

1 Committee of Seven, The Study of History in Schools (The Macmillan
Company print), pp. 140-41.

2 Ibid., pp. 34-35.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 539

The report of this committee had a marked effect on the
teaching of history in the high school, an effect which is
still strongly felt. However, the Committee of Five on the
Study of History in Secondary Schools suggested certain
changes among which the most important were: l (1) the
requirement of three years of study in history by every
pupil; (2) changes In the content of the various "blocks";
(3) greater emphasis on modern history; (4) more atten-
tion for civil government; (5) a revision of the four blocks
as to the order of their study, suggesting the order — (A)
Ancient history, (B) English history, (C) modern European
history, (D) American history and government. The effect
of the reports of the two committees (Committee of Seven
and Committee of Five) on present-day conditions may be
observed in Table CXXXVII.

It may be noted in the reports of the Committee of Ten,
the Committee of Seven, and the Committee of Five that
social studies other than history were almost neglected.
Throughout the history of the high school the study of civics
has had a rather precarious existence, commonly being found
in the form of civil government confined to somewhat formal
study of governmental agencies and taught as an appendage
to the study of American history. It is only within the past
decade or so that the study of civics has begun to come to
its own in the program of studies in the high school. Even
more precarious has been the position of the study of econo-
mics in the high school as may be seen from Table
CXXXVII.

232. Present status. In 1914 the Bureau of Education
attempted to ascertain the status of the social sciences in
secondary schools. Returns were received from 62.5 per

1 Report of the Committee of Five, The Study of History in Secondary
Schools, especially pp. 65, 24 /., 53 ff., 9-11, 64. Committee appointed
in 1907: its report published in 1911.

540 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

cent of all the secondary schools in the United States.
While the data received were not altogether satisfactory
they give a fair idea of the situation as it was at that time.
From the returns it was estimated that thirty per cent of
the schools reporting required for graduation all of the his-
tory they offered and thirteen per cent made history entirely
an elective. Also the returns indicated* that between 1910
and 1914 forty-three per cent of the schools reporting
increased then* offerings, 11.5 per cent decreased their
offerings, and the other schools reporting made no change
in the amount offered. The figures presented in the following
table will give a fair idea of conditions in 1914.

TABLE CXXXVL NUMBER ANT> PEB CENT OF THE SCHOOLS

WHICH REPORTED OFFERING SEVERAL AMOUNTS OF HlSTORY
REQUIRED AND ELECTIVE *

Number of hour*

Required

Eledite

Number

Percent

Number

Per cent

None

312
234
396
1,042
1,679
674
136
16

7.0
5.2
8.8
23.2
37.4
15.0
3.0
.4

2,189
185
316
639
805
724
391
118

40.8
3.4
5.9
11.9
15.0
13.6
7.3
2.2

36-88 hours

108-176 hours

180—264 hours

288-528 hours

540-704 hours

720-880 hours

More than 880 hours

Totals

4,489

100.0

5,367

100.1

Median amount of time for required history . . . 28S-528 hours or between 1.6 and
2.9 "uniU."

* Table compiled from data given by Briggs, T. H., in Report of the United Siatet
Commitnoner of Education (1915), vol. u, p. 120. Certain of Briggs's percentages required
correction.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

541

Even more illustrative of the place at present held by the
social sciences are the figures presented in Table CXXXVII.

TABLE CXXXVII. NUMBER OF SCHOOLS OFFERING REQUIRED
AND ELECTIVE HISTORY OF VARIOUS KINDS IN EACH HIGH
SCHOOL GRADE*

III

1-1V

Grand
total

Req.

Elec.

Req.

Elec.

Req.

Elec.

Req.

Elec.

Req.

Elec.

Ancient history. . .
Medieval and
modern Euro-
pean history . . .
English history . ..
American history .
Industrial history.

2049

195
337
121
22
589
11
48

1324

97
191

58
77
242
11
9

1588

1818
332

23
230
37
179

874

1401
358
51
103
139
60
17

158

1000
1157
730
30
641
140
45

123

1059
1749
360
138
465
469
12

133

5376
36
2397
310
7

105

268
1391
202
157S
1026
9

3494

3083
1959
4341
113
3857
498
279

2347

2662
2666
1860
520
2419
1566
47

6141

5745
4625
6201
633
6276
2064
326

32011

General history. . .
Totals

3372

2009

4291

3003

3901

4375

6360

4600

17924

14087

Number of schools reporting 7197

Average number of courses required 2.5

Average number of courses elective 2+

Number of schools requiring all history offered 2172

Number of schools offering only elective history 963

Numbei

T of schools ottering only elective history 963

:r of schools offering no history 10

* Table compiled from data given by Briggs, T. H., in Report of the United States Com-
missioner of Education (1915), vol. H, p. 121.

From this table a number of facts concerning the status
of the social sciences in the secondary school may be noted :
(1) The influence of the recommendations of the Committee
of Seven is noticeable in the order in which the four " blocks "
of history are studied, i.e., ancient history in the first year
(required in seventy-four per cent of schools where any
history is required in the first year), mediaeval and modern
European history in the second year (required in forty-
five per cent of schools requiring any history in the second
year), English history in the third year (required in thirty-
seven per cent of the schools where any history is required

542 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

in the third year), and American history in the fourth year
(required in ninety -five per cent of schools where any history
is required in the fourth year); (2) "general history" has
apparently all but disappeared from the program; (3) his-
tory in some form is required in the first year of 38.5 per
cent of the schools reporting, in the second year of 55.9 per
cent of the schools, in the third year of 43.4 per cent, and in
the fourth year of 49.4 per cent; (4) it is probable that civics
is prescribed either in connection with American history or
as a separate subject in more than one half the schools
reporting and is offered as an elective subject in another
third; (5) civics is taught as a prescribed subject in the
fourth year of one third of the schools reporting and as an
elective subject in the fourth year by about one quarter
or one fifth of those schools; (6) economics has begun to find
a place in the program of the secondary school, commonly
in the fourth year.

Current theory and practice in the study of civics deserves
special attention at the present time. The Committee of
Seven recommended that the study of " civil government "
be made a separate subject of study in the fourth year of
the high school wherever time permitted, and that where
time did not permit "civil government" be taught in con-
nection with American history. The latter method was
generally adopted and the study of civics commonly was
restricted to constitutional law and the machinery of Na-
tional and State government. Within recent years consid-
erable dissatisfaction has been manifest with the tendency
to teach civics as an appendage to American history, to
delay its study to the last part of the school course, and to
restrict its content to the larger affairs of National and
State government. Consequently a strong movement has
begun to introduce a new kind of civics which should be
studied earlier in the course as a separate subject, which

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 543

should find the main points of emphasis in the affairs of
community life, and have a firmer basis of immediate inter-
est for the pupil. "Community civics" has, therefore, re-
ceived more and more emphasis in the secondary-school
program within the past few years and bids fair to establish
itself. Its function and character will be considered in a
later section.

If we compare the position of the social sciences in the
programs of the American and European secondary schools,
noteworthy differences are at once evident. Thus in the
French secondary school for boys the study of geography
and history (for the most part combined) is found in every
grade, from the infant class to the philosophical-mathemat-
ical form, and is required of every pupil throughout the
course, approximately one seventh of the total time of the
entire course being devoted to such studies and approxi-
mately the same proportion of time being devoted to such
studies in the last four grades. Morals and civics are taught
in connection with history in the earlier grades and as a
special subject one hour per week in the last two grades of
the first cycle.

In the Prussian higher schools for boys social studies begin
with geography in the lower grades, that subject being com-
bined with history later. History is begun with stories in
connection with the study of the mother tongue, appearing
as a separate subject in Quarta (age about 11), and contin-
uing throughout the course as a required subject for all
pupils. In the entire course from one eighth to one tenth of
the total time is devoted to the study of history and geogra-
phy, that proportion holding also for the last four grades
of the course. Religion is required of all pupils two or three
periods per week throughout the course. This, of course,
functions in many ways as a social study.

In French and in German education it may be noted:

544 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

(1) that the study of history forms an important part of the
secondary -school program throughout the course; (2) that
the study of history is prescribed for every pupil; (3) that
in Germany " religion " and in France " la morale " is studied
as a separate subject; (4) that the social sciences given are
closely correlated; (5) that a large part of the social studies
is uniform for all secondary-school pupils.

233. Character and ultimate aims. While the several
social sciences differ in their character and in their specific
aims as studies in the secondary school, it is worth while to
consider the general character and ultimate aims of the
social sciences as a unit before attempting the separate analy-
sis of the various subjects belonging to the general field.
In the Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the
Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education
social studies are defined and their aims set as follows: l

1 . Definition of the social studies. — The social studies are under-
stood to be those whose subject matter relates directly to the organ-
ization and development of human society, and to man as a mem-
ber of social groups.

2. Aims of the social studies. — The social studies differ from other
studies by reason of their social content rather than in social aim;
for the keynote of modern education is "social efficiency," and in-
struction in all subjects should contribute to this end. Yet, from
the nature of their content, the social studies afford peculiar oppor-
tunities for the training of the individual as a member of society.
Whatever their value from the point of view of personal culture,
unless they contribute directly to the cultivation of social efficiency
on the part of the pupil they fail in their most important function.
They should accomplish this end through the development of an
appreciation of the nature and laws of social life, a sense of the
responsibility of the individual as a member of social groups, and
the intelligence and the will to participate effectively in the pro-
motion of the social well-being.

1 The Social Studies in Secondary Education, National Education Asso-
ciation, Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission
on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, Bureau of Education
Bulletin (1916), no. 28, p. 9.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 545

In this statement of the committee a number of important
facts are to be noted: (1) the conception that all the social
studies may be considered from many points of view as con-
stituting a group of studies, each differing more or less from
every other, yet all with important common elements in-
volving a common end — the development of social effici-
ency; (2) emphasis is placed on the direct values of the
studies involved; (3) the specific ends to be aimed at in
attaining social efficiency are (a) knowledge and apprecia-
tion of the nature and laws of social life, (6) the develop-
ment of a sense of responsibility in the individual as a
member of social groups, (c) the development of the in-
telligence and habits which may lead to effective participa-
tion in social activities.

The recommendations of this committee noticeably in-
volve the conception that the social studies of the secondary
school should be organized and taught with reference to the
activities of modern life in which the individual will engage.
This is seen from the importance attached to modern history
and from the important position assigned to civics and
related studies. (Table CXXXVIII.)

234. Values of the study of history. History as a subject
of study in the secondary school has passed through three
fairly definite stages and entered on its fourth stage. During
the earliest period history was studied primarily as ancillary
to the study of the classics. That stage was followed by a
second period when history was studied largely as an in-
formational subject. Later still history was studied with
emphasis on its supposed disciplinary values. Finally his-
tory is now studied with particular emphasis on its sociologi-
cal values with special reference to the activities of present-
day life as participated in by the ordinary man or woman.
The relative emphasis given in any one period to certain
values does not negate the existence of other values. Hence,

546 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE CXXXVIII*

Seventh year:

(1) Geography — \ year. J These two courses may be taught

European history — % year. 5 in sequence, or parallel through

the year.
Civics — taught as a phase of the above and other subjects, or

segregated in one or two periods a week, or both,
or (2) European history — • 1 year.

Geography — taught incidentally to, and as a factor in, the

history.
Civics — taught as a phase of the above and other subjects, or

segregated in one or two periods a week, or both.
Eighth year:

American history — • § year. ) These two courses may be taught
Civics — ^ year. j in sequence, or parallel through

the year.
Ninth year:

(1) Civics: Continuing the civics of the preceding year, but with
more emphasis upon State, national, and world aspects —
5 year.

Civics: Economic and vocational aspects — • | year.
History: Much use made of history hi relation to the topics of

the above courses,
or (2) Civics — economic and vocational, i 1 year, in sequence or

Economic History. ) parallel.

Tenth to twelfth years:

I. European history to approximately the end of the seventeenth century
— 1 year. This would include ancient and oriental civilization,
English history to the end of the period mentioned, and the
period of American colonization.

II. European history (including English history) since approximately
the end of the seventeenth century — 1 (or ^) year.

III. American history since the seventeenth century — • 1 (or 5) year.

IV. Problems of American Democracy — • 1 (or £) year.

* Committee on Social Studies, op. cit., pp, 15, 35.

before attempting any detailed analysis of the values of the
study of history, it is well to make a preliminary classifi-
cation of the various values claimed.

Here, as in the case of many other subjects of study we
may classify the values claimed in two comprehensive
groups : (I) direct and specific values ; (II) indirect and gen-
eral values. These comprehensive groups of values may
again be sub-divided. Thus under the head of direct and
specific values may be considered: (1) direct social-civic

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 547

values; (2) direct vocational values; (3) direct avocational
values; (4) direct propaedeutic values. Under the head of
indirect and general values may be considered: (1) values
of the study of history for the development of certain general
social concepts; (2) values of the study claimed to arise from
the training of certain valuable mental traits and their
transference to non-historical material. In the following
sections will be considered seriatim :

I. Direct and specific values:

(1) Direct social-civic values;

(2) Direct vocational values;

(3) Direct avocational values;

(4) Direct propaedeutic values.
II. Indirect and general values:

(1) Conceptual values;

(2) Transfer values.

235. Direct social-civic values. History must always be
conceived as one of the principal subjects of study operating
toward the attainment of the social-civic aim of secondary
education. In common with the other social sciences it
deals directly with social phenomena as its content. It
differs from the other social studies (except as they may as-
sume an historical aspect) in that: (1) it deals with the
phenomena of human activity in their actual processes,
dynamic and genetic; (2) its field is more extensive and
permits the contact with widely variant conditions; (3) it
makes possible the understanding of existing conditions
which cannot be appreciated except in terms of the past;
(4) it allows opportunity to interpret cause and effect in
human action where that relation cannot be seen except
with the passage of time; (5) its study offers one of the few
opportunities afforded in the secondary school to gain an
understanding of other countries and other peoples.

To conceive that the direct social-civic values of history

548 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

are to be measured solely by the extent to which one may
consciously employ certain facts or pieces of information
concerning an historical event in solving a problem of the
present is to have a very superficial view of the function of
historical study. The direct application of a knowledge of
historical events to present-day problems is, of course, a
very real result of the study of history. Much more impor-
tant, however, than acquired knowledges in the field of history
are the less tangible but none the less real attitudes developed
through the study of that subject. One may have but the
haziest remembrance of facts concerning the development
of the American democracy after a study of American his-
tory, but one cannot help having a changed attitude as the
result of such study. The secondary-school pupil may for-
get every date and name in English history after a year's
study, but he can never again have the same attitude toward
the English nation or any other nation that he had before
he studied that subject. No greater mistake could be made
in estimating the direct values of the study of history than
to assume that such values are to be measured solely by the
specific application to modern life of the knowledges acquired
in such study.

For convenience we may consider the direct social-civic
values of the study of history (1) with reference to the more
personal activities of the individual, (2) with reference to
those activities of the individual which more directly affect
united social action, and (3) with reference to social inte-
gration.

(1 ) The personal conduct of the individual : The individual 's
character and conduct is determined in part by the forces
of heredity and in part by his experiences in his environ-
ment. By far the most important part of his environment
(from the viewpoint of formal education) is his social envi-
ronment. The individual is affected, however, by those

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 549

parts only of his environment with which his experiences
bring him into contact. His direct experiences must per-
force be greatly limited: his indirect and vicarious expe-
riences are limited only by the experiences of man and the
possibility of representing them to the individual's mind.
Such vicarious experiences may be afforded through the
action of literature or the faithful re-presentation of history
and biography. The study of history, therefore, by enlarg-
ing the field of individual experience may contribute to the
character and conduct of the individual. That contribution
may take the direction of stimulating ambition and ten-
dencies to act along certain general lines or it may take the
direction of moral education. True it is that the events of
history illustrate human action indiscriminately moral or
immoral. True it is also that the teaching of history cannot
be organized solely or even primarily for purposes of moral
education. It is even true that in some cases where the
ethical values of the study of history have been emphasized
the results have been unsatisfactory: e.g., the development
of a patriotism which is vainglorious and unfair to other
nations. Nevertheless, it must be recognized that there is a
fundamental truth expressed by the aphorism of Terence:
"Homo sum; humani nihil a me alienum puto"; and that
the moral training which may be secured from the study of
history has all the advantages and all the disadvantages
which are to be found in moral training secured from the
study of human experiences in any field. Whether or not
the study of history leads to the improvement of character
is dependent on the method of such study and the teaching
afforded. The essential fact is that history affords plentiful
material for such teaching, far transcending the amount of
material which can be found in the immediate experience
of the individual.

It was suggested above that the attitudes (ideals, ambi-

550 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

tions, tendencies to act) developed through the study of his-
tory are probably more important than the specific knowl-
edges acquired through such study. For the personal char-
acter and conduct of the individual the study of history is
valuable for the stimulation of laudable ambitions, of ideals
of character, standards of conduct, even certain forms of
"hero-worship," which may be guiding forces in the life of
the individual. Hence the special value of biography as a
part of history and the desirability of some emphasis on the
personal conduct and character of truly noble men and
women.

(2) The individual's participation in social-group activi-
ties : By far the greater part of the major activities of soci-
ety are carried on through social institutions (the State, the
home, the Church, the vocation, the school). An under-
standing of such institutions, the interpretation of their
ideals, their interrelations, their functions in modern society,
cannot be gained without some acquaintance with the na-
ture of their development. Here again the values of the
study of such institutions and their interrelations are not
to be measured solely, or even mainly, by the extent to which
the individual may consciously apply some bits of historical
knowledge. Far more important are the attitudes toward
social-group activities developed through the study of his-
tory and the unconscious tendencies to act in such activ-
ities.

It is only when one thinks of the direct social-civic values
of the study of history in terms of the applicability of pieces
of historical information only and loses sight of the influence
of historical study in developing social ideals, social stand-
ards, attitudes, and tendencies to act that one is tempted to
minimize the social-civic values of the study. Likewise, it
is only when the teaching of history develops merely histori-
cal information and fails to develop ideals, attitudes, and

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 551

tendencies to act, that history in the secondary school fails
to achieve its most important direct values.

(3} Integrating values of the study of history: The study of
history must always be one of the important means em-
ployed by the secondary school to develop the common
knowledges, ideals, standards, traditions, modes of thought
and action, essential for social solidarity. The importance
of the integrating function of secondary education has been
emphasized in prior chapters. To the end of social integra-
tion all the social sciences may contribute much. History
here possesses peculiar advantages, dealing as it does with
conditions which have determined the society in which we
live and bringing to consciousness the common activities,
traditions, ideals of humanity and of one's own society.
Frequently the conception of the integrating value of the
study of history has manifested itself in connection with
the development of patriotism only. Such a conception is
very narrow — narrow not only in the sense that it has fre-
quently emphasized a false type of patriotism, but also in
the sense that it loses sight of the fact that the existence
of a certain degree of social-mindedness is more essential
than loyalty. This is, of course, particularly important in
the American democracy. If the study of history fails
to aid the development of that unity of sentiment, ideals,
thought, and action, which is essential for the endurance
and development of democracy, it fails to achieve one of
its most important ends.

236. Direct vocational values claimed. Direct vocational
values to be derived from the study of history for those
destined to become teachers of history and certain other
subjects, for those destined to enter the field of diplomacy,
and for a few others are readily perceived. Such values,
however, must be considered limited and highly contingent.
Far less contingent and far more general must be considered

552 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

those direct vocational values which may be derived from
acquaintance with the development of commerce and in-
dustry, the part played by economics in social development,
the historical relation of the various forms of industry, the
changing relations of labor and capital, etc. Here again the
development of attitudes and tendencies to act must be con-
ceived as far more important than the accumulation of in-
formation. As one of the major social institutions the voca-
tion has important historical associations acquaintance with
which may contribute much to vocational efficiency in its
broader aspects. Hence the importance sometimes attached
to the study of industrial history or commercial history in
certain courses of the secondary school. The more history
includes a study of economic and industrial factors in the
development of civilization — a marked tendency at the
present time — the more the study of history may contrib-
ute to direct vocational values in the secondary school.

237. Direct avocational values. History, as every other
study in the program of the secondary school, may establish
the basis of a perpetual enjoyment in moments of leisure.
Here, however, history can claim little that any other sub-
ject which may arouse a special interest cannot claim, except,
possibly, where history encroaches on the field of literature
in the borderland of mythology, biography, and pseudo-
historical material.

238. Direct propaedeutic values. In many ways the
study of history may be considered as a basic study for the
study of several other subjects, so much so that whole
schemes of education have been built up on the culture-
epoch theory with history as its base.1 Certainly we must
recognize the fact that the humanitarian studies, such as
the social studies, literature, ethics, philosophy, and the
rest, cannot be properly pursued without some basic his-

1 Cf. DeGarmo, C., Herbart and lite Ilerbartians, pp. 107-29.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 553

torical knowledge and understanding. Direct and indirect
propaedeutic values are, therefore, to be found in the study
of history. To conceive that such values are valid for those
only who pursue higher studies in college or the university
is to assume that contact with the problems and materials
of those studies must be limited to college and university
experience. Propaedeutic values of the study of history are,
of course, as important for those not going to college or the
university as for those who do — possibly even more so,
since formal education in those fields is lacking for the
former.

239. Conceptual values claimed. The point was made
above that the chief values to be derived from the study of
history involved the development of attitudes and tenden-
cies to act on the part of the individual. This point was
made in special connection with direct values. Much the
same point may be emphasized in connection with certain
more comprehensive and more fundamental factors which
involve the conscious or unconscious functioning of general
social concepts to be derived from the study of history.
Among such fundamental concepts may be emphasized
those involving the continuity and unity of human experi-
ence and of civilization, human activity and social organi-
zation as dynamic and evolutionary, the dependence of the
present on the past and the responsibility of the present for
the future, the relation of the individual to society and its
development.1 It is idle to say that such concepts are not
always developed from the study of history. The important
point is that they cannot be developed without some ac-
quaintance with history. It is idle also to say that such con-
cepts do not function directly in the activities of the indi-
vidual. By their very nature such general concepts cannot

1 Cf. Allen, J. W., The Place of History in Education, chap, x; Johnson.
H., The Teaching of History, pp. 74 ff.

6'54 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

be analyzed as to their influence on specific actions, but,
since they must represent an important part of one's social
philosophy, they must function in every social act of the
individual. Though they may function in a fashion which
may be considered indirect, their functioning is none the
less real — perhaps more real even than the functioning of
supposedly specific and direct values.

240. Transfer values claimed. As for most subjects of
study in the secondary-school program extensive transfer
values are commonly claimed for the study of history. Thus
Salmon: l

Moreover, it must be borne in mind that history, like many other
subjects, is in the curriculum for a double object — for the direct
information that it gives and for its help in mental training.

And Chase: 2

Memory is the most wonderful and important of our intellectual
faculties, and all that tends to strengthen and develop it is of the
highest importance. History is foremost among the studies that
do this, for in its very nature it is a memory study, and memory
gains facility by practice.

Or Hinsdale : 3

While slight attention suffices to show that history has disci-
plinary values, some well-directed thought is required to discover
how great and varied this value is.

Taught even in the poorest way — that is, by dint of iterating
and reiterating unorganized facts — it trains the memory; taught
philosophically — that is, care being taken wisely to choose and
properly to organize the facts — it yields to no other subject in
mnemonic value.

All that has been urged concerning the memory will be admitted.

1 Salmon, L., "Some Principles in the Teaching of History," First
Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, p. 32.

2 Chase, W. J., on p. 289 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High-School
Education.

3 Hinsdale, B. A., How to Study and Teach History, pp. 7-8.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 555

But that history is an equally important valuable discipline of the
imagination has not been as generally perceived.

But history does far more for the mind than merely to exercise
the powers of representation; it is also a valuable discipline of the
thinking faculties.

Modern psychology denies the existence of such general
faculties or powers as Hinsdale assumes may be so readily
trained through the study of history. As was pointed out,
however, in discussing the problems of transfer values, the
denial of the obsolete " faculty psychology " does not of
itself negate the possibility of the transfer of improved ef-
ficiency, but demands a reconstruction and reinterpretation
of " discipline " in terms of accepted psychological theory.
Such a reinterpretation was attempted in Chapter XI and
in its general form need not be reconsidered here. Accord-
ingly as one accepts or rejects the possibility of appreciable
amounts of transfer he may estimate the transfer values of
the study of history. One very important fact, however, is
apparently neglected by proponents and opponents of the
study of history. The problems of transfer in the case of
history are in important respects different from the prob-
lems of transfer in the case of most school studies, if, indeed,
the problems supposed to involve transfer do really involve
it. In the case of most studies for which transfer values are
claimed or denied the problem involves the application of
improved efficiency acquired in connection with content of
one kind to content of a widely different character; e.g.,
the transfer of improved efficiency acquired in connection
with mathematical material to non-mathematical material.
In the case of history, however, there is a vast field for
the application of improved efficiency gained in connection
with specific social data studied to other social data not
studied. In other words the improved efficiency is to be
employed in connection with content and situations of the

556 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

same or relatively similar character. This is doubtless a
case of transfer, but surely transfer of a far different kind
from transfer as commonly considered in relation to most
subjects of study in the school.

241. Factors conditioning the values of history. Great
as are the values to be derived from the study of history it
must be recognized that the subject suffers important limi-
tations. Among those limitations the ones considered below
are worthy of special attention.

(1) Subjects of study differ widely in the extent to which
their materials lend themselves to ready manipulation for
purposes of instruction and learning. This factor has been
emphasized by Keatinge: x

Those who write at large on Education seldom realize that the
branches of knowledge commonly taught in schools vary greatly
in the ease with which they lend themselves to manipulation. . . .

What are the elements necessary in a subject which is to lend
itself to manipulation? It is easy to sketch in the qualifications.
In the main they are four in number. The apparatus must be
inexpensive and readily procured; it must be easy to see what is
the teacher's work on the one hand and the boy's work on the other;
there must be a facility for setting home work that shall be different
in kind from the work done in class, and these exercises must be
fairly mechanical (for too much refined judgment must not be
expected from the average boy); it must be possible to attain to
some generalizations, abstractions, or rules which can be applied
to fresh matter. Indeed it is upon the presence of this latter ele-
ment that most of the others depend.

The older subjects fulfill these conditions well. . . .

When we turn to history we find the conditions very badly ful-
filled. It is difficult to devise preparation for the boy other than
the learning from a text-book of the facts of the lesson that is to be
given or the revising of the facts of a lesson that has been given.
In school work it is not always possible to arrive at historical
generalizations and apply them to fresh matter.

1 Keating, M. W., Studies in the Teaching of History, pp. 1-3, 38 ff.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 557

The nub of the problem is to be found, of course, in the
difficulty of so manipulating the materials of history as to
throw them into problem form without which reflective
thinking cannot be encouraged or fostered, and to arrange
the teaching materials of history in such form as may foster
the process of dissociation.1 It is obvious that, if the prin-
ciples of social action which it is desired that the study of
history should develop are actually to be developed, some
means must be provided for the abstraction of those general
principles from the historical situations presented. Now it
is necessary for favorable conditions of such generalization
that a number of situations be presented which are analo-
gous but which differ in all other respects other than the
general principle which it is desired to dissociate. The
chronological character of history precludes any very effec-
tive use of this method. For this reason some have suggested
the abandonment of the chronological order in dealing
with historical material and the adoption of some method
which may make possible comparison and abstraction. Thus
Seeley: 2

We still arrange historic phenomena under periods, centuries,
reigns, dynasties, but what is wanted is a real rather than a tem-
poral classification. The phenomena should be classified under
such headings as Constitutional, International, Economical,
Industrial, etc. Nor should each state be studied by itself, but
all states together, the comparative method being constantly
employed, and much attention being given to the classification of
states. ... In short science brings together phenomena of the
same kind, but history brings together phenomena of different
kinds, which have chanced to appear at the same time.

Such a conception of the teaching of history may be
opposed by the statement that it is no longer history which

1 Cf. sections 169jf.

1 Seeley, J. B., Methods of Teaching History, Pedagogical Library, vol. I,
p. 198.

558 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

is being studied. Be it so! The answer to such an objec-
tion is that the character of the study of " history " in the
secondary school is to be determined by the aim which
emphasizes the phenomena of human action regardless of
chronology. In so far as chronology may assist in the attain-
ment of that aim it is justified. In so far as it fails it must
be abandoned for the sake of greater values. In any event
the limitations of history must be recognized.1

(2) History is not an exact science and can never become
an exact science — if, in fact, it may properly be denomi-
nated a science at all. The importance of this factor arises
not so much from the fact that specific reactions on the part
of the individual cannot be exactly determined (a fact
which has its advantages as well as its disadvantages), but
that the study of history may always be colored by the
teacher or textbook and have widely different results for
different pupils who have studied the subject. The facts
of history are of course certain: our knowledge of them is,
however, not always correct, and interpretations of them are
sometimes widely divergent. Two dangers, therefore, are
always present, one that the pupil may have only an ex
parte opinion on some social problems, the other that, on
finding disagreement among authorities, he may be discour-
aged in his attempt to arrive at the truth. These dangers
are always to be guarded against.

(3) It takes generations to establish a body of theory and
practice around the teaching of any subject of study which
may be considered relatively stable and efficient. In the
development of the study of history in the American second-
ary school there has been manifest a failure as yet to estab-
lish any body of theory and practice which approaches even

1 On the problem-solving methods of teaching history see Parker, S. C.,
Methods of Teaching in High Schools, pp. 174 jf.; Keatinge, M. W., op. cit.,
pp. SB/.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 559

desirable amounts of uniformity and stability. Textbooks
vary widely, the contents of courses are greatly dissimilar
and the treatment different in many schools where any
attempt is made to do more than teach a certain number
of facts. It is difficult to determine the actual values accru-
ing from the study of history in the secondary school where
such varying conditions are found.

(4) Since the values aimed at in the study of history are
in part general and in all cases somewhat intangible it must
always be difficult to measure the results achieved. This is,
to be sure, true of most subjects of study, but particularly
true of those studies whose principal values are to be found
in the development of character — moral and social — of
the individual. Certain results of teaching in mathematics,
in the natural sciences, and in language study may readily
be estimated and checked from time to time. In the case
of history little can be done in that direction except as far as
the accumulation of historical information is concerned.

242. Meaning and scope of civics. The study of civics
in the secondary school had its beginning in the study of the
federal constitution, various State constitutions, and in a
few cases of such material as city charters, in the early high
school. Thus at least as early as 1828 Stanbury's Catechism
on the Constitution of the United States was studied in the
English High School of Boston, and in Salem the English
High School course of 1842 included the study of " the City
Charter, Constitution of Massachusetts, and . . . Consti-
tution of the United States." From the beginning, there-
fore, the study of " civics " meant the rather formal (fre-
quently catechetical) study of the machinery of State and
National government, thus justifying the term "civil
government." l Throughout the nineteenth century the
study of civics included little else than this.

1 For example, see Sullivan's Political Classbook, or Bayard On the Con-
stitution, two books in common use in the earlier high school.

560 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Within the past decade or so the feeling has been growing
stronger and stronger that the study of the machinery of
the National Government, valuable though it may be made,
is far from adequate for the purpose of training citizens.
Present-day theory tends to enlarge the meaning and scope
of the study of civics in such a way as to involve: (1) empha-
sis on the commoner elements of social and civic activity
in community life; (2) emphasis on the importance of
developing tendencies to act and attitudes toward social
welfare rather than on mere knowledge of the machinery of
government; (3) the extension of the field of civics so as to
include the informal activities of social-civic life as well as
the more formal political activities; (4) the "vitalizatiori"
of civics by emphasizing in the beginning those forms of
social-civic activity with which the secondary-school pupil
is brought into intimate and immediate contact.

243. The aims and values of civics. The values of the
study of civics are to be interpreted in terms of its contribu-
tions to the social-civic aim of secondary education prima-
rily. Here are involved: (1) the attainment on the part of
the pupil of a knowledge of social-civic relations and insti-
tutions, their character, and place in social organization;
(2) the development in the pupil of a sense of social-civic
responsibility; (3) the development in the pupil of attitudes
and tendencies to act in conformance with desirable ideals
of social-civic activity. The mere attainment of a knowledge
of our social-civic organization or even the development in
the pupil of a sense of civic responsibility and ideals of civic
conduct is not sufficient. Unless such knowledge, such a
sense of social responsibility, such civic ideals, are trans-
lated into forms of behavior and result in proper civic action,
the values of the study of civics cannot be attained. Here,
more than in the case of most studies in the secondary
school, direct values are dominant and no accumulation of

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 561

information concerning the functions of government or the
relation of the individual to government can take the place
of the development of social attitudes and tendencies to act.
It is unfortunate that the aims of the study of civics are
frequently stated in terms of knowledge and that the teach-
ing of civics so frequently results only in the inculcation
of civic information. Thus the Committee on the Teaching
of Government of the American Political Science Associa-
tion unfortunately puts the cart before the horse in its
statement of the aims of civic instruction : l

The prime purposes of a study of civic relations are so obvious
as to require little in the way of discussion. They may be summa-
rized thus:

1. To awaken a knowledge of the fact that the citizen is in a
social .environment whose laws bind him for his own good.

2. To acquaint the citizen with the forms of organization and
methods of administration of government in its several depart-
ments.

These objects it is believed can be better attained if the school
begins to aid the young citizen not only to think in terms of society
but also to translate civic thought into action.

That the study of civics in the past has tended to result
in information rather than in behavior is due in large part
to the fact that civics has commonly been taught as a study
of the broader functions of National and State government
and has seldom touched the commoner activities of indi-
viduals in community life wherein the actual behavior
of pupil-citizens in civic affairs can be directly affected.
Modern civics by dealing first with the civic activities
which intimately touch the young citizen even as a pupil
in the school affords greater opportunity to develop actual
habits of behavior in civic affairs. This is one of the prime
advantages of "community civics."

1 American Political Science Association, Committee on the Teaching
of Government, Report, p. 27.

562 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

244. The scope and function of " community civics."
Civics as heretofore presented in the American secondary
school has proved comparatively fruitless for a number of
reasons: (1) because it has been taught as an abstract science
of government; (2) because it has been limited to the larger
aspects of National and State government; (3) because it
has been taught commonly in the last grade of the secondary
school after the majority of pupils have left school; (4) be-
cause it has neglected to train pupil-citizens in their imme-
diate community responsibilities, both formal and informal.
Community civics is designed to remedy those defects.

Community civics takes its name, not from any restric-
tion of its scope to the smaller community, — village, town,
or city, — but from the fact that the social environment of
the pupil is conceived as opened up to him through a series
of successively enlarged communities or spheres of civic
life — family, neighborhood, town, county, State, Nation,
Humanity — and that the series of his social-civic contacts
or experiences begins with the smaller unit.

The aims of community civics are the same as those men-
tioned above. They may be stated specifically in the terms
of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on
the Reorganization of Secondary Education : x

(a) Significance of the term " community." Community civics lays
emphasis upon the local community because (1) it is the com-
munity with which every citizen, especially the child, comes into
most intimate relations, and which is always in the foreground of
experience; (2) it is easier for the child, as for any citizen, to realize
his membership in the local community, to feel a sense of personal
responsibility for it, and to enter, into actual cooperation with it,
than is the case with the National community.

1 The Teaching of Community Civics, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1915),
no. 23, pp. 11-12. The quotation given was taken from the Report of the
Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Sec-
ondary Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1916), no. 28, pp. 22-23.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 563

But our Nation and our State are communities, as well as our
city or village, and a child is a citizen of the larger as of the smaller
community. The significance of the term "community civics"
does not lie in its geographical implications, but in its implications
of community relations, of a community of interests. ... It is a
question of point of view, and community civics applies this point
of view to the study of the National community as well as to the
study of the local community.

(b) Aims of community civics. The aim of community civics is
to help the child to know his community — • not merely a lot of
facts about it, but the meaning of his community life, what it does
for him, and how it does it, what the community has a right to
expect from him, and how he may fulfill his obligation, meanwhile
cultivating in him the essential qualities and habits of good citi-
zenship.

More specifically this aim is analyzed as follows:

To accomplish its part in training for citizenship, community
civics should aim primarily to lead the pupil (1) to see the impor-
tance and significance of the elements of community welfare in
their relations to himself and to the communities of which he is a
member; (2) to know the social agencies, governmental and volun-
tary, that exist to secure these elements of community welfare;
(3) to recognize his civic obligations, present and future, and to
respond to them by appropriate action.

Civics, conceived from this viewpoint, should prove a
much more efficacious instrument of education in the sec-
ondary school than the civics which has hitherto been taught
as an appendage to history. It should be clear that the val-
ues of such a study are universal and direct. It is imperative
therefore, that community civics should be studied by everj
pupil in the secondary school. It should be clear also that
if the study is to produce its greatest values it should not
be relegated to the later grades of the school but should be
a prominent study in the junior high school before pupils
begin to leave school in large numbers.

245. Economics as a study in the program. The study
of economics early found some place in the program of the

564 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

public secondary school. Thus " political philosophy " was
prescribed for study in the English Classical (High) School
of Boston in 1821 and in Massachusetts " political economy "
was required by law to be taught in all larger high schools
from 1857 to 1898. Despite its early beginning, however,
economics has always occupied a precarious position in the
program of the secondary school. When taught it was
almost invariably presented in the form of a logically organ-
ized science little suited to the needs and capacities of most
high-school pupils. Only within the past few years has any
attempt been made to organize and teach economic princi-
ples in the secondary school in a manner at all adapted to
the maturity and capacity of the pupils.

It is clear that the activities of modern industrial and
social life in America call for some acquaintance with the
common and fundamental principles of economics on the
part of every individual. It is clear also that the average
man or woman at present is lamentably ignorant of the
simplest laws of economics which play such an important
part in our social organization. Some provision must be
made to meet the apparent need. Some of the necessary
economic knowledges can be secured incidentally through
the study of geography, history, civics, and other subjects
in the elementary and secondary schools. Incidental study
of that sort is, however, insufficient. The fact must be
faced that large numbers of boys and girls are constantly
going forth from the school into the world of industry where
they must deal with problems social and industrial which
call for a working knowledge of common economic princi-
ples. The growing social and political importance of eco-
nomic problems, the increasing complexity of governmental-
industrial relations, the changing relations of capital and
labor, of employee and employer, the development of labor
organizations, emphasize the need for such instruction at

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 565

the present time. Unless we are to trust to the influence of
demagogues and exploiters of industry some provision must
be made in the school for this imminent need.

Common practice relegates all direct instruction in eco-
nomics to the college or other higher institution. Doubtless
the more mature the student the more readily he may un-
derstand the principles of economics and the more compre-
hensive may be his grasp of that science. Hence it is com-
monly urged that secondary-school pupils are incapable of
understanding the principles of economic laws. Such an
argument is for the most part based on the conception of
economics as a logically organized and complete science.
For the study of economics in this sense there is no place in
the secondary school. However, many important princi-
ples and problems of economics are readily understood and
eagerly studied by pupils of secondary-school age. An
important distinction should be made between a philosophic
study of economics as a logically organized science and a
" practical " study of certain of its principles and problems
as involved in the activities of " the common man." The
philosophic study of economics belongs to higher education.
The " practical " study of economic elements has a legitimate
place in the program of the secondary school. Either as a
separate subject or as an important part of such a composite
subject as that considered in the following section, the
study of the commoner principles of economics has a legi-
timate and important place in the program of secondary
education.

246. The study of " Problems of American Democracy."
The Committee on Social Studies has recommended the
study of "Problems of American Democracy, Economic,
Social, Political " as a

culminating course of social study in the last year of the high
school, with the purpose of giving a more definite, comprehensive,

566 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

and deeper knowledge of some of the vital problems of social
life, and thus of securing a more intelligent and active citizen-
ship.1

Two considerations led the committee to make this recom-
mendation: (1) the difficulty of providing for separate in-
struction in the many social studies which are claimants for
a position in the program of the secondary school; e.g.,
economics, sociology, law, politics, etc. ; (2) the fact that in
actual life the individual faces problems or conditions in
which the principles of a number of social sciences are inex-
tricably related. The committee summarizes its reasons for
proposing such a course as follows: 2

(1) It is impracticable to include in the high-school program a
comprehensive course in each of the social sciences. And yet it
is unjust to the pupil that his knowledge of social facts and laws
should be limited to the field of any one of them, however impor-
tant that one may be.

(2) The purposes of secondary education and not the intrinsic
value of any particular body of knowledge should be the determin-
ing consideration. From the standpoint of the purposes of second-
ary education, it is far less important that the adolescent youth
should acquire a comprehensive knowledge of any or all of the
social sciences than it is that he should be given experience and
practice in the observation of social phenomena as he encounters
them; that he should be brought to understand that every social
problem is many-sided and complex; and that he should acquire
the habit of forming social judgments only on the basis of dispas-
sionate consideration of all the facts available. This, the commit-
tee believes, can best be accomplished by dealing with actual
situations as they occur and by drafting into service the materials
of all the social sciences as occasion demands for a thorough under-
standing of the situations in question.

(3) The principles upon which such a course is based are the
same as those which have been successfully applied in community
civics, sociology, and even history.

1 Report of the Committee, op. cit., pp. 52 ff. 2 Ibid., p. 56.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 567

It will be seen from the recommendations of the commit-
tee that the organization of the course proposed follows out
the ideas dominant in the recommendations for courses in
civics, namely that the study should be organized not in
terms of the demands of the subject or subjects as logically
arranged abstract sciences but in terms of the activities in
which individuals participate. The proposal of the commit-
tee is worthy of adoption.

247. Criticism of social studies as now organized. In the
light of the preceding discussion it would appear that several
important criticisms may be made concerning the economy
of the social sciences in the secondary school as at present
organized. Among these may be emphasized the following:

(1) The values of the study of the social sciences in the
secondary school have always suffered from the tendency
to organize their materials and determine content and
method with reference to the organization of the subjects
as logical sciences rather than with reference to the needs
and capacities of the pupils and with respect to the situations
in life in which they may use them. The conception of his-
tory from the historian's standpoint rather than from the
standpoint of its use as a subject of study in the secondary
school has in most cases led to an organization of material
and a determination of teaching methods ill-suited to the
attainment of the potential values of that subject. Similar
results have come from the conception that "civil govern-
ment" and "political economy" should be taught as logi-
cally organized sciences.

(2) In the study of history attention has been given
almost exclusively to military and political events to the
neglect of important events of social, intellectual, and
economic importance. The modern development of the
sociological conception of history emphasizes the impor-
tance of historical material previously neglected. While it

568 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

is "a still unsolved problem ... to determine what condi-
tions and institutions shall be given the preference, consid-
ering the capacity of the students on the one hand, and the
limitations of time on the other," it is nevertheless note-
worthy that attention is at present being directed toward
other elements in history than wars, kings, major matters
of national development, and the like.

(3) In spite of the acceptance of a theory that the study of
the past should aid in an understanding of the present, the
teaching of history in the past has signally failed to relate
historical events to the present and future needs of the
pupils.

The ideal history for each of us would be those facts of past
human experience to which we should have recourse oftenest in
our endeavors to understand ourselves and our fellows. No one
account would meet the needs of all, but all would agree that much
of what now passes for the elements of history meet the needs of
none. . . . No one questions the inalienable right of the historian
to interest himself in any phase of the past that he chooses. It is
only to be wished that a greater number of historians has greater
skill in hitting upon those phases of the past which serve us best
in understanding the most vital problems of the present.1

(4) In the past the study of civics has been subordinated
to the study of history. For this there can be no justifica-
tion and modern tendencies to afford civics its proper place
in the secondary-school program deserve universal support.

(5) In the past, and in most cases at present, the tendencj
is to limit the study of civics to the formal study of the ma-
chinery of government. If the study of civics is to be made
effective its field must be broadened so as to include the
study of the commoner affairs of social-civic activity.

(6) The practice, though lessening still dominant, of post-

1 Robinson, J. H., "The New History," Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, vol. L, pp. 189-90.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 569

poning the study of American history, and particularly civ-
ics, to the later part of the secondary-school course, is very
faulty. Such postponement means that two thirds of the
pupils entering the high-school course can never receive the
necessary benefits of the study of those subjects. The grow-
ing practice of offering civics in the earlier years of the
secondary school is to be encouraged.

(7) In many secondary schools at the present time it is
possible for pupils to pass through the entire course without
ever coming into contact with the social sciences. If the
values of the study of the social sciences are rightly con-
ceived to be universal and certain, not limited or contingent,
it must be recognized that some contact with the social
studies should be provided for every pupil in the school.

(8) The study of social sciences other than history and
civics is all but neglected in the American secondary school.
Such neglect cannot be justified. It must be recognized,
however, that the study of social phenomena as abstract
and logically organized sciences has no place in the second-
ary-school program. The correct approach is indicated by
the modern tendencies to be found in community civics and
is such a course as that proposed in Problems of American
Democracy. •

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. What are the arguments for and against the study of "history" by
institutions rather than by periods? (Cf. Seeley, J. R., Method* of
Teaching History.) 4

2. What are the arguments for and against the introduction of a course
in "The Study of Nations"? (Cf. Kingsley, C. D., School and Society,
vol. in, pp. 37-41.)

3. What are the arguments for and against a requirement of some social
study by every pupil in each grade of the secondary school?

4. What differences should be made in the social studies of different
groups of pupils in the secondary school?

5. Trace the development of social studies in the program of the second-
ary school. •

570 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

6. Compare the place of social studies in the secondary schools of America,
Germany, and France.

7. For any high school or any group of high schools determine the actual
amount of social studies engaged in by members of any " class " through-
out the course. Consider those who leave school as well as those whc
remain throughout the course.

8. Outline a series of problems of topics which would properly find place
in a course of "Problems of American Democracy." (Cf. Report of the
Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization
of Secondary Education, .pp. 52-56.)

9. To what extent would it be possible to organize history teaching on the
form of "problem-solving" exercises? (Cf. Parker, S. C., Methods of
Teaching in High Schools, p. 174 Jf. ; Keatinge, M. W., Studies in the
Teaching of History.)

10. Compare several different textbooks in American history with respect
to emphasis on political matters, institutional development, economic
changes, social changes, military matters, intellectual matters, etc.

11. Compare textbooks in Civics with reference to the amount of attention
devoted to various topics.

12. Trace the requirements in social studies for college admission.

SELECTED REFERENCES

• Allen, J. W., The Place of History in Education, especially pp. 156-79.
American Historical Association, Committee of Seven, Report on the Study

of History in Schools (1898). (Published by The Macmillan Company.)
American Historical Association, Committee of Eight, Report on the Study

of History in Elementary Schools (1909). (Published by Charles Scrib-

ner's Sons.)
American Historical Association, Committee of Five, Report on the Study

of History in Secondary Schools (1911). (Published by The Macmillan

Company.)
American Political Science Association, Committee of Five, Report on

Instruction in American Government in Secondary Schools, Proceedings

of the Association (1908), vol. v, pp. 218-57.

American Political Science Association, Report of the CommiHce on Instruc-
tion, The Teaching of Government (1916), especially pp. 1-134. (Published

by The Macmillan Company.)
. Bourne, H. E., The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and

Secondary Schools, especially pp. 77-105.
Hall, G. S., Educational Problems, vol. n, pp. 667-82.
Haynes, J., Economics in Secondary Schools.
Hill, M., The Teaching of Civics.

Hinsdale, B. A., How to Study and Teach History, pp. 1-26.
Johnson, H., Tlic Teaching of History, pp. 55-83.

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 571

Judd, C. H., Psychology of High-School Subjects, chap. xvi.

Keatinge, M. W., Studies in the Teaching of History, especially pp. 1-95.

Kingsley, C. D., and Others, The Teaching of Community Civics, Bureau of
Education Bulletin (1915), no. 23.

Kingsley, C. D., "The Study of Nations," School and Society, vol. m,
pp. 37-41.

National Education Association, Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary
Studies, pp. 162-185. (Bureau of Education edition: also published by
The American Book Company.)

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization of
Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Social Studies in
Secondary Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1916), no. 18.

New England History Teachers' Association, Outline for the Study of Ameri-
can Civil Government in Secondary Schools (1910). (Published by The
Macmillan Company.)

Robinson, J. H., The New History.

Russell, W. F., "The Entrance of History into the Curriculum of the Sec-
ondary School," The History Teacher's Magazine, vol. v, pp. 313 Jf.

Salmon, L. M., "Some Principles in the Teaching of History," First
Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education,
especially chaps, n-vi.

Seeley, J. R., Methods of Teaching History, Pedagogical Library, vol. I.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chaps, xvi-xvn.

Extended bibliography: American Political Science Association, Report of
the Committee on Instruction, The Teaching of Government, pp. 111./.

CHAPTER XVII

THE PLACE OF PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS
IN THE PROGRAM

I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

248. Historical position of the practical arts. While the
most noteworthy development of the practical and voca-
tional arts in the program of the secondary school has taken
place within the pas^ decade, some beginnings of its develop-
ment were to be fouiid as early as the beginning of the acad-
emy movement and were not lacking in the early high-
school movement. In its beginning the public high school
was characterized by attempts to provide secondary educa-
tion for those who were not to receive a college education
and there was a real intent on the part of its founders and
advocates to provide suitable subject-matter for such boys
and girls. Thus in the first high school established, the
English Classical (High) School of Boston, it was designed
to provide an education for boys which should serve as
a foundation for eminence in their professions, "whether
mercantile or mechanical." In the early high schools sur-
veying and navigation were taught as early as 1821, book-
keeping by 1823, "commerce" before 1838, stenography as
early as 1849, and sewing as early as 1840. It must be recog-
nized, however, that little support was given to such studies
and that, even in the case of the few practical subjects
receiving a measure of support, the instruction was extremely
Formal and detached from practical or vocational applica-
tion. During the last quarter of the nineteenth century
increased attention was paid to the clerical or commercial

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 573

arts, to manual arts, and to the somewhat higher technical
arts of industry. Provision for these arts, however, was by
no means universal, and in the majority of schools where
such studies were provided instruction failed lamentably to
fulfill its purpose. Thus in most cases "manual training"
took the direction first of general discipline, then of "manual
expression," rather than vocational efficiency, and technical
education was soon restricted in most high schools to the
preparation of boys for entrance to the technical college.
Of the vocational subjects the clerical or "commercial"
alone had made noticeable headway by the end of the nine-
teenth century.

About the beginning of the twentieth century a number
of important factors began to receive attention and the recog-
nition of their importance has led to a revised conception
of the place of practical and vocational arts in the program
of the secondary school. Prominent among such factors were
recognized the following: (1) the relative ineffectiveness of
the formalized education already provided for the practical
arts; (2) the changed character of the secondary-school
population; (3) the importance of retardation and elimina-
tion and the needs of boys and girls who leave school at an
early age or stage; (4) the changes which have taken place
in other social agencies which formerly- provided valuable
forms of practical and vocational training; (5) the demands
of modern occupational life. Recognition of those and other
factors has revolutionized conceptions of the place of the
practical and vocational arts in the secondary school and
has tended to produce the following results: (a) the closer
articulation with the actual conditions of workaday life of
such practical arts as had already found some place in the
program; (6) the acceptance of the vocational aim, or at
least the applied aim, as the dominant element determin-
ing the place and purpose of practical arts in the program;

574 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

(c) an extension of the number and scope of practical and vo-
cational arts in the secondary school; (d) a revision of the
aims, values, and methods of almost all subjects of study
in the school and attempts to establish their relations to
practical life.

249. Present status in the program. As far as practical
and vocational arts in the secondary school are concerned
the present cannot be described otherwise than as a period
of experimentation, characterized by endeavors to put into
practical operation the conceptions outlined in the preced-
ing paragraph. In the majority of public secondary schools
little attempt has been made to meet imperative demands
for the organization of practical and vocational arts training
either in the secondary school proper or through the second-
ary school in cooperation with other agencies. In schools
where such organization has been attempted the recency
of those attempts has permitted the development of few
settled policies or conditions. The field of these arts is obvi-
ously the field where differentiated education is dominant
and, therefore, the field where the greatest amount of varia-
tion is to be expected.

At present the majority of public secondary schools in the
more progressive communities provide in some degree for
certain domestic arts instruction (at least courses in sewing
and cooking) and for commercial education (at least in the
clerical branches). Far less provision has as yet been made
for courses in industrial and agricultural arts, least of all in
the former. In the entire field of practical and vocational
arts instruction in the school the United States has followed
far in the rear of more progressive countries in Europe.
However, recent activity by cities, States, and by the Federal
Government bids fair to inaugurate a new era for practical
and vocational education throughout the country. In par-
ticular the federal Smith-Hughes Act, passed by Congress in

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 575

February, 1917, must give great impetus to that, form of
education through the encouragement provided by the
appropriation of large sums of money to the several States
for the payment of the salaries of teachers, supervisors, and
directors of agricultural subjects, the salaries of teachers of
trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, and for the
training of such teachers, supervisors, and directors.

250. Values of the practical and vocational arts. The
fundamental values of the practical and vocational arts
in the program of the secondary school are to be determined,
of course, in terms of their relation to the economic-voca-
tional aim of secondary education. Those values are direct
and specific. In Chapter IV it was shown that little more
than one third of those pupils who enter the first grade of
the elementary school reach the first grade of the four-year
high school; that of those entering the high school about
one third leave before the beginning of the second year,
about one half leave before the beginning of the third year,
two thirds before the beginning of the fourth year; and that
of those who enter the seventh grade of the school system
about one quarter leave before the eighth grade, one third
to one half before the ninth grade, two thirds before the
tenth grade, three quarters before the eleventh grade, and
nearly four fifths before the twelfth grade.1 Boys and girls
who leave school before the completion of the secondary-
school course for the most part enter commercial, industrial,
agricultural, and household pursuits. Throughout their lives
the economic activities in which they engage will be found
in those fields. In 1913 approximately a million and a half
boys and girls were enrolled in the seventh grade of the
public schools of the United States. Of that number prob-
ably 600,000 left school by 1916 and many more will leave
school before the end of the secondary school course for that
1 C!. Tables LV. LVI, LVII.

576 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

" class " in 1919. It is probable that about one half of those
who will complete the secondary-school course in 1919 will
enter commercial, industrial, agricultural, and household
pursuits, so that in all probability about 1,300,000 boys
and girls already have entered or will enter those occupa-
tions from that group of children who were in the seventh
grade of the schools in 1913. A moderate estimate would
place the number of boys and girls leaving school from
grades above the sixth grade at more than one million an-
nually. Compared with this the number of those complet-
ing the secondary -school course and entering other pursuits
in life immediately or later is insignificant. By far the
greatest proportion of those leaving school before the com-
pletion of the course will engage in practical-arts pursuits.
For those pupils instruction in the practical-arts subjects
of a vocational purpose and character is necessary and
legitimate.

251. Conditions emphasizing practical and vocational
arts. Numerous factors have combined to emphasize the
values and the place of the practical and vocational arts in
the secondary-school program at the present time. All have
been considered at some length in preceding sections of this
book. They may be summarized briefly here.

(1) Developments in educational theory : Three important
developments in educational theory affect the present situa-
tion as far as the practical arts are concerned, (a) Much of
the failure properly to provide for practical and vocational
education during the nineteenth century was due to a belief
that " general abilities " suitable for all activities of life
could be gained through the intensive study of a few sub-
jects. Thus the founders of the English Classical (High)
School of Boston in 1821 desired to provide an education
" calculated to bring the powers of the mind into operation "
and to " serve as a foundation for eminence in his (the

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 577

pupil's) profession, whether mercantile or mechanical."
Thus the manual training movement ran on the rocks of a
belief in the possibility of developing " general manual dex-
terity" and the accompanying mental powers. Modern
psychological and educational theory has greatly restricted
the application of any such theory and placed much greater
emphasis on specific training. (6) Modern educational
theory, by determining the values and aims of subject-
matter in the secondary school in terms of the contributions
made to the activities in which the individual will partici-
pate, has greatly increased the attention to be paid to sub-
jects contributing to the attainment of the economic-voca-
tional aim. (c) Recognition of the existence, character, and
distribution of individual differences in the capacities, inter-
ests, and probable future activities of pupils, and recogni-
tion of the differentiated needs of society have given in-
creased impetus to the movement to provide a wide range
of differentiated studies in the program to meet the needs
both of pupils and of society.

(2} Developments in the secondary-school population :
Within the past quarter of a century noteworthy changes
have taken place in the secondary-school population. In
numbers the secondary-school population has increased
from 297,894 pupils (one for every 210 of total population
in 1889-1890) to 1,373,661 pupils (one for every 73 of the
estimated total population in 1914-1915). In character the
secondary-school population has changed from a roughly
homogeneous group of those designed for the higher walks
of life to a highly heterogeneous group of pupils destined to
enter all sorts of occupations.

(3) Developments in other social institutions : In Chapter
IX a somewhat detailed though brief consideration was
given to the changes which have taken place in other social
institutions tending to decrease the stimuli and opportuni-

578 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ties previously afforded for vocational training, and at the
same time to demand a higher degree of vocational efficiency.
Little further need here be said otherwise than to repeat
that the occupations themselves, home and community life,
and other agencies have lost many stimuli and opportuni-
ties for vocational training which they will probably never
recover. Thus the responsibility has been forced on the
school for training previously provided more or less ade-
quately by other social agencies.

252. The field of vocational education. Practical-arts
and vocational education in the secondary school must be
determined by the conditions in the economic world which
the pupils will later enter. Some conception of the range,
variety, and importance of various occupations may be
gained from the occupation statistics presented in the fourth
volume of the Thirteenth Census Report (1910). The occu-
pations there listed are classified under their main divisions
in the following table :

TABLE CXXXIX. NUMBER AND PROPORTION OF PERSONS IN
THE GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS (1910) *

Occupations

Numbers

Per cents

All

Male

Female

All

Male

Female

Agriculture, etc

12,659,203
964,824

10,658,881
2,637,671
3,614,670
459,291
1,663,569
3,772,174
1,737,053

10,851,702
963,730

8,837,901
2,531,075
3,146,582
445,733
929,684
1,241,328
1,143,829

1,807,501
1,094

1,820,980
106.596
468,088
13,558
733,885
2,530,846
593,224

33.2
2.5

27.9
6.9
9.5
1.2
4.4
9.9
4.6

36.1
3.2

29.4
8.4
10.5
1.5
3.1
4.1
3.8

22.4
0.1

22.5
1.3
5.8
0.2
9.1
31.3
7.3

Manufacturing, mechanical in-
dustry

Trade

Professional service

Domestic and personal service. .
Clerical occupations

Total persons engaged

38,167,336

30,091,564

8,075,772

100.0

* Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv, p. 40.

t " Not elsewhere classified."

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 579

According to this table the general divisions of occupa-
tions engaging as large a proportion as five per cent of men
or women are as follows: men — agriculture (36.1 per cent),
manufacturing and mechanical industry (29.4 per cent),
transportation (8.4 per cent), trade (10.5 per cent); women
• — agriculture (22.4 per cent), manufacturing and mechani-
cal industry (22.5 per cent), trade (5.8 per cent), profes-
sional service (9.1 per cent, of which more than two thirds
are teachers), domestic and personal service (31.3 per cent),
clerical occupations (7.3 per cent). From this list some occu-
pations may be eliminated as far as general provision for
vocational education in the secondary school is concerned.
Thus transportation engages the activity of more than two
and one half million men, but far more than one half of that
number are unskilled laborers. Thus also professional service
engages 733,885 women, but of that number 478,027 are
school-teachers for whom higher professional education is
necessary. Hence the occupations engaging the largest
number of men or women and suitable for consideration
in connection with vocational education in the secondary
school are agriculture, manufacturing and mechanical in-
dustry, trade, domestic service, and clerical occupations.

253. Relative importance of various occupations.1 Varia-
tion in the values of various vocational subjects is obviously
a very important factor affected extensively by geographi-
cal considerations. This is noticeable not only for smaller
districts but also for States and even larger geographic divi-
sions. Thus in Mississippi more than three quarters of all
workers are engaged in agriculture; in Massachusetts less
than five per cent. In Rhode Island more than one half are
engaged in manufacturing and mechanical industries; in
Mississippi less than eight per cent. In Nevada more than

1 All figures in this section are taken from p. 45 of the fourth volume of
the Thirteenth Census Report (1910).

580 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

one fifth are engaged in the extraction of minerals; in Missis-
sippi less than one tenth of one per cent. In California about
fourteen per cent are engaged in trade; in South Carolina
about three per cent. For geographic divisions of the coun-
try the figures are as follows:

TABLE CXL. PERCENTAGES OP WORKERS IN VARIOUS
OCCUPATIONS (1910) *

•

•§

.1?

.i--

o §

Geographic
Division

li.

'•f-a

§ 1'JS

"I"

"*!

*••

(per

cent)

New England

10.4

0.3

49.1

6.5

10.6

1 7

4 8

10 7

5 9

Middle Atlantic

10.0

4.2

40.6

8.0

12.0

1.4

4.9

11.8

7.1

East North Central...

25.6

2.6

33.2

7.6

10.6

1.1

4.8

9.2

5.3

West North Central...

41.2

1.8

20 0

7.8

10.4

1.1

5.2

8.5

3.9

South Atlantic

51.4

1.8

18.6

5.0

6.1

1.0

3.0

10.5

2.6

East South Central . . .

63.2

1.9

12.4

4.0

5.3

0.6

2.6

8.4

1.7

West South Central...

60.1

0.7

12.6

5.2

7.0

0.8

3.3

8.1

2.1

Mountain

32.4

9.4

19.5

10.3

8.7

1.7

5.2

9.1

3.6

Pacific

22.6

2.4

27.2

10.3

12.6

2.0

6.0

11.3

5.5

UNITED STATES

33.2

2.5

27.9

6.9

9.5

1.2

4.4

9.9

4.6

* Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv, pp. 44-15.

This geographic variation in economic activities gives
rise to one of the most important problems of vocational
education, namely, the problem of adapting it to local con-
ditions as determined by the economic activity and the
character of the population served. This problem is best
considered in connection with the principles governing the
selection of vocational subjects discussed in the following
section.

254. Principles governing selection. The wide range and
variety of vocational fields and differing local conditions

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 58

emphasize the factor of selection in determining the char-
acter of vocational education in any locality. Here a num-
ber of important principles are involved.

(1) Only those occupations which afford opportunity for
a relatively large number of skilled workers should be repre-
sented by vocational subjects in the secondary school. The
economics of secondary-school administration and the law
of demand and supply alike negate or affirm the advisability
of introducing various vocational subjects into the school.

(2) Only those occupations which have a fairly steady
and general demand for skilled workers should be repre-
sented by related vocational subjects in the secondary
school. No school can afford to introduce vocational sub-
jects when the occupations for which they prepare vary
widely in the rate of demand for workers thus prepared.

(3) Only those occupations which offer opportunity for
lengthy employment should be represented by related vo-
cational subjects in the secondary school. Society cannot
afford to provide expensive vocational education for occu-
pations wherein the worker's usefulness is relatively short
as measured by his employment in that occupation.

(4) Only those occupations which offer somewhat pro-
gressively increased returns to the individual and to society
as the result of progressively increased skill or knowledge
should be represented by related vocational subjects in the
secondary school. Education in the school cannot assist in
the exploitation of the worker by industry.

If our investigation of this question [Are skilled processes ahead?]
shows that the employment is of the "blind-alley" type, in which
two or three weeks, or even less, suffices to master all the technical
training and skill that can be employed in the work, — which is
true of about eighty-five per cent of the paper-box-making indus-
try and of about an equal percentage of the machine work in shirt
and collar factories, — it is evident that no trade training at public

582 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

expense should be provided. If the advanced processes of the
work are so simple in nature that all the knowledge and skill needed
can be picked up in the trade itself with what little assistance can
be given by a foreman, which is possible in plants working on
white goods, in power sewing, straw-hat sewing, and underwear
knitting, it is then inadvisable to use public funds for training
workers to enter that industry.1

(5) Local or sectional occupations which meet the de-
mands suggested above should primarily be represented by
related vocational subjects in the secondary school. It is
to be noted, however, that dominant local occupations con-
stitute but one of two important factors to be considered.
The other factor is the factor of individual differences in
capacities and aptitudes in the secondary-school population
as related to vocational activities. That a boy or girl is born
on a farm or in a rural community is no guarantee whatever
that he or she is well fitted to engage in agriculture or that
agricultural education is well fitted to his aptitudes and
interests. Where a sufficiently large group of pupils is
found interested and capable in any single occupation, that
occupation should be represented by its related vocational
subjects in the school whenever economically possible.
Thus, from the viewpoint of desirability, industrial subjects
have their place in a dominantly rural community and agri-
cultural subjects have their place in an industrial community.
From the viewpoint of practicability (depending on numbers
and tastes), such non-local vocations will be represented in
few schools. The two factors of local needs and individual
needs must always clash to some extent, and for this there
is no remedy other than the establishment of special sec-
tional (e.g., State or county) vocational schools or the de-
velopment of part-time cooperative education.

1 Smith, H. B., Establishing Industrial Schools, p. 15. For this whole
matter see his excellent chapter I.

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 583

II. CLERICAL AND COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS

255. The scope of clerical and commercial education.
The overlapping of clerical and commercial occupations has
led to two errors in the administration of clerical and com-
mercial education in the secondary school: (1) the error of
confining clerical education to preparation for business life,
and (2) the error of restricting commercial education to the
clerical arts in the majority of schools. The latter is by far
the more serious error. So-called "commercial courses" are
commonly restricted to subjects to which tradition has at-
tached the name "commercial subjects" — stenography,
typewriting, bookkeeping, "business arithmetic" — together
with some elements of office and business practice. In the
larger schools, particularly in special "commercial schools,"
are frequently found forms of instruction in foreign lan-
guages (German, French, and Spanish) adapted to supposed
or real commercial needs, special types of science instruction
adapted to the same ends, some instruction in design and
related arts with application to commercial activities, ele-
mentary commercial law, economic or industrial history,
economics, etc. It will be noted that most of those courses —
the courses forming the backbone of " commercial education "
— are almost limited to instruction in the clerical arts or
"office" activities and to certain general knowledges, little
or no provision being made for other important forms of
commercial activity. This appears to be wrong for reasons
implied in the following considerations: (1) office work and
clerical occupations in general engage but a relatively small
proportion of strictly commercial workers, probably not more
than about fifteen per cent of all business employees.1 On
the other hand, other business activities engage a relatively

1 Thompson, F. V., Commercial Education in Public Secondary Schools,
chap. vi.

584 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

large proportion of commercial workers, e.g., retail selling
has been estimated to engage more than one third of all
business employees. Clerical training is very unsatisfactory
for such workers. (2) Those who leave school before the
completion of the secondary-school course and who enter
business in large numbers, for the most part engage in other
phases of business activity than the clerical. Their needs
are not well met by clerical courses. (3) Stenography and
typewriting are passing more and more into the haqds of
women or girls and at present a relatively small proportion
of clerical positions emphasizing those subjects are occupied
by men or boys. (4) Many clerical positions have little or
nothing to do with strictly commercial work, e.g., civil-serv-
ice positions.

Recent theory bids fair to institute two important changes
in the administration of clerical and commercial education
in the secondary school: (a) by recognizing that not all
clerical instruction is limited to commercial preparation;
(6) by extending the scope of commercial education so as to
include instruction dealing with merchandizing, selling, and
store service.

256. Aims of clerical and commercial subjects. Mani-
festly the primary aims and values of the study of clerical
and commercial subjects in the secondary school are to be
determined by their direct and specific contributions toward
the attainment of the economic- vocational aim of secondary
education. Clerical and commercial activities are obviously
activities in which a large proportion of secondary-school
pupils will later participate. If the theses formulated in
Chapters IX and X of the book are sound it follows that the
secondary school should provide preparation for those activ-
ities of life in which the pupils will later engage and for which
other social agencies do not provide adequate training.
Clerical and commercial occupations are activities in which

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 585

secondary-school pupils do later engage in large numbers.
It remains to consider whether other social agencies, includ-
ing those vocations themselves, provide adequate training.
In Chapter IX it was shown that social institutions other
than the school have tended to decrease the vocational
stimuli and opportunities which they formerly afforded.
As affecting the field of clerical and commercial education
the following facts may be considered. (1) The demand for
clerical efficiency has developed with great rapidity within
the past few decades, especially in the non-commercial fields
and those fields on the borderline between secretarial and
business activities. (2) Within recent years the relatively
simple organization of commercial activities has given way
to a very complex form of organization; e.g., note the char-
acter of business organization in the large department store
and the large wholesale house. (3) Commercial competi-
tion has developed tremendously, even to the extent of rami-
fied international competition. (4) In recent years less and
less opportunity has been offered for " learning the business "
and apprenticeship has tended to disappear. (5) Greater
sub-division of labor and increased specialization has per-
meated the business field. (6) In constantly increasing pro-
portions girls and women have engaged in commercial
activities. (7) Home and community life have tended to
afford less and less opportunity for commercial training.
(8) Compulsory school-attendance laws and child labor laws
have postponed the age at which children may enter com-
mercial life: hence, (9) the school has taken the boy and girl
out of business and thus prevented him* from securing even
that amount of early commercial training which participa-
tion in business might afford. These facts emphasize the
value and necessity of adequate instruction in clerical and
commercial subjects in the secondary school.

The aims of clerical and commercial education in the

586 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

secondary school must be the development of direct and
specific vocational abilities in the related activities of life
in so far as they may be developed in the school. Any
attempt to emphasize indirect values, e.g., " values for men-
tal training," involve questionable psychological theories and
are likely to diminish the primary vocational values which
should be dominant.

257. The place of clerical arts in the program. Two rea-
sons for the relatively successful provision of instruction in
the clerical arts in the secondary school are probably to
be found in the facts: (1) that those arts, while perhaps pre-
dominantly commercial, have nevertheless spread to several
related fields not primarily commercial or on the borderline
between commerce and other fields, e.g., public service, the
office of the physician, the lawyer, etc., and the factory office;
(2) that certain of the clerical arts deal with abilities even
less restricted in their applications, e.g., stenography, type-
writing, bookkeeping, etc. The clerical arts, therefore, have
somewhat less limited and less contingent values than some
strictly commercial arts whose values are limited to com-
mercial vocations and contingent on special activities.

Recognition of the somewhat extended values of certain
clerical arts has sometimes led to a much mistaken emphasis
on the part of some writers and teachers. Thus importance
appears to be attached to " mental discipline " wrongly by
Moran: l

Stenography, when properly taught and thoroughly mastered,
has even greater value, considered from a purely educational stand-
point. To become even a moderately successful stenographer one
must have training along several lines, each of which has large
educational value. These are as follows: (1) It compels one to

1 Moran, S. A., pp. 403-04 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High-School
Education. Cf. Bartholomew, W: E., "Fundamental Aims in the Teaching
of Bookkeeping," Proceedings of the National Education Association (1916),
pp. 362-65.

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 587

think quickly and accurately. It is of great value to any one to be
thoroughly awakened mentally and to have acquired power to
think clearly. (2) The scientific study and practice of stenography
compels -the development of greater ability to hear things accu-
rately. The inability of the average high school and college student
to hear all that he should hear and hear 'it accurately is really appall-
ing. Stenography, more than any other study, will very largely
overcome this almost universal weakness. (3) Mastering the
technic of memorizing is an especially important feature which re-
sults from the thorough training of this subject. I do not know of
any other subject which affords an equally valuable and specific
training. (4) The most important mental training resulting directly
from this study is the development of ability to concentrate the
whole mind upon the work in hand. . . . Since the study of stenogra-
phy is especially valuable in developing such power, it seems that
there should be no question as to the advisability of introducing
this subject in every high school, not only as a part of the com-
mercial course, but also as a regularly disciplinary study.

However far one may desire to extend the study of
stenography or any other clerical art on the basis of its
direct values, he certainly cannot be justified by modern
psychological theory in making any such sweeping claims
for the study of stenography or other clerical subject on
the basis of such " disciplinary " values as those claimed by
the writer above quoted. The problem of disciplinary values
was discussed in Chapter XI. It cannot be considered here
further than to point out that the theory of faculty psychology
implied in the above quotation has long since been aban-
doned by the psychologist. Where such important direct
values manifestly exist it is folly to shift the instruction in
clerical arts from the field of direct to indirect values.

258. Analysis of clerical occupations. Some conception
of the relative importance of various occupations involving
the clerical arts may be gained from the census figures for
1910. They are presented in the following table.

588 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

TABLE CXLI. CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS ACCORDING TO THE
1910 CENSUS*

Occupations

Total

Male

Female

105 127

96 325

8 802

50,785

48,495

2 290

18 595

13 980

4 615

35,747

33 850

1 897

486 700

299 545

187 155

720 498

597 833

122 665

80,353

78,192

2,161

640 115

519 641

120 504

108 035

96 748

11 287

10,866

4 274

6 592

97,169

92,474

4,695

316,693

53,378

263,315

Total

1,737,053

1,143,829

593,224

* Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv, p. 94.
t "Except telegraph and telephone messengers."

This classification presented in the census returns is in
many ways very unsatisfactory, but serves at least to indi-
cate the relative prominence of bookkeeping, stenography,
and typewriting in occupational life, as well as the relative
importance of " clerkship." Of special interest is the number
of clerks — about 42 per cent of all engaged in clerical occu-
pations, 52 per cent of all men and 21 per cent of all women
engaged in those occupations. If to the numbers given be
added clerks separately classified by the Census Bureau as
" clerks in stores " the group of " clerks " assumes even greater
importance. An analysis of their activities is needed as a
basis for proper clerical instruction in the secondary school.

259. Non-clerical commercial subjects. As an introduc-
tion to the consideration of non-clerical commercial subjects
which are or should be in the program of studies of the sec-
ondary school we may examine the analysis of business
occupations made by the Census Bureau.

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS

TABLE CXLII. TBADE OCCUPATIONS ACCORDING TO THE
1910 CENSUS *

Occupations

All

Male

Female

Bankers, brokers, and money lenders

105,804

103 170

2 634

Clerks in store.it

387 183

275 589

111 594

Commercial travelers

163,620

161 027

2 593

Decorators, drapers, and window dressers

5 341

4 902

439

Deliverymen

229 619

229 469

150

Floorwalkers, foremen, and overseers

20 724

17 649

3 075

Inspectors, gaugers, and samplers

13,446

11 685

1 761

97 964

95 302

2 662

81 193

80 450

673

Laborers, porters and helpers in stores

102,333

98 169

4 164

29 708

29 435

273

22 362

21 352

1 010

Real estate agents and officials

125,862

122 935

2 927

Retail dealers

1,195,029

1,127,926

67,103

921 130

663 410

257 720

Undertakers

20,734

19,921

813

Wholesale dealers, importers, and exporters

51 048

50,123

925

Other pursuits (semi-skilled)

41,640

34,068

7,572

Total

3,614,670

3,146,582

468,083

* Thirteenth Centus Report (1910), vol. iv, p. 93.

t "Many of the 'clerks' in stores evidently are ' salesmen and saleswomen.' "

j Not otherwise specified.

Of the business occupations here listed those engaging as
large a proportion of men or women as five per cent are as

follows:

TABLE CXLIII§

Occupations

All
(per cent)

Male
(per cent)

Female
(per cent)

10.7

8.8

23.8

6.3

7.3

33.1

35.8

14.3

25.5

21.1

55.1

4.5

5.1

0.5

80.1

78.1

93.2

§ Compiled from Table CXLII.

Of particular interest here are the occupations of " clerks
in stores," "salesmen and saleswomen" (the two groups are
not clearly to be differentiated), and " retail dealers." Second-

590 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ary education has in the past recognized preparation for
those occupations in the most general way only, emphasiz-
ing the clerical arts and " general business knowledge " sides
of their activities. The arts of buying, selling, and handling
merchandise have been all but neglected in the commercial
education provided by the secondary school. Hence the
emphasis placed at the present time by specialists in com-
mercial education on " merchandizing, selling, and store
service." Those specialists have, however, tended to over-
emphasize occupations in large commercial organizations,
such as department store occupations, at the expense of
occupations in " small business." The fact that over thirty-
three per cent of all business men and women (35.8 per cent
of the male and 14.3 per cent of the female), exclusive of
clerical employees, are "retail dealers " should serve to guard
us against such possible overemphasis. The need of com-
mercial education for the men and women who become
" retail dealers " is indicated by the tremendous " business
mortality" of that class — failures due in large part to the
lack of the most elementary business knowledge and train-
ing.

260. "General subjects" modified. Within the past few
years the tendency has gradually developed to provide
special forms of instruction in " general subjects " adapted
to supposed or real commercial and clerical ends. In this
category fall such studies as commercial English, commer-
cial arithmetic, commercial or economic geography, indus-
trial history, commercial German, French, and Spanish,
commercial science, commercial design, commercial law,
business economics, etc. The varying character of courses
given the titles " commercial English," " commercial arithme-
tic," etc., makes it impossible properly to evaluate them.
Some are doubtless quite legitimately given a place in the
program of studies. Others are of rather doubtful status or

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 591

of questionable value in spite of the validity of some ele-
ments involved. Thus courses in "commercial English"
and "commercial" or "industrial" history have been
much questioned for the secondary school. Of particular
interest is the tendency found in some cases to substitute
for commercial pupils courses in " commercial English "
and " industrial history " for the courses in English and in
social science provided for other pupils. Whatever argu-
ments may be adduced for courses in " commercial English "
and " commercial " or " industrial history " for commercial
pupils, there can be no justification for allowing such voca-
tional subjects to take the place of courses in English and
social science designed primarily to attain the non-voca--
tional, i.e., the social-civic and the individualistic-a voca-
tional, aims of secondary education. " Commercial English "
and " industrial history," having the same ends in view as
other commercial and clerical subjects, i.e., the attainment
of vocational efficiency, must be placed in competition with
them, not with subjects whose primary purposes have to do
with the social-civic and individualistic-avocational aims.
Of special interest too is the tendency which is becoming
prominent to emphasize the commercial values of modern
foreign languages. It is altogether probable that too much
attention may be paid to such courses as " commercial Ger-
man," "commercial French," or "commercial Spanish," to
the detriment of more important forms of commercial educa-
tion. It must be recognized that in this country peculiar con-
ditions exist greatly limiting the commercial values of the
study of foreign languages. (1) It must be recognized that,
while American commerce and business have been brought
into close contact with foreign peoples, the number of com-
mercial positions affected is insignificant, and that the rela-
tively small number of business positions offering oppor-
tunity for, much less requiring, the use of a foreign language

592 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

makes an ability to use it relatively unimportant. (2) It
must also be recognized that the heterogeneity of our Amer-
ican population provides a relatively large number of bi-
lingual men and women with whom it is impossible for the
school-taught American boy or girl to compete in securing
commercial positions calling for an ability to use a foreign
language. For the majority of commercial pupils the direct
values of the study of a foreign language are relatively
insignificant.

261. Criticism of present commercial education. Provi-
sion for commercial education which is or should be made
in the secondary school affects three groups of subjects:
'(1) clerical-commercial arts; (2) merchandising arts; (3) an-
cillary subjects.

(1) Clerical-commercial subjects: Better provision is made
for these subjects than for any other group. Errors involve
(a) the tendency to limit clerical instruction to business
fields, and (6) the tendency to consider clerical instruction
suitable for the majority of business occupations.

(2) Merchandising subjects: Subjects falling under this
category at present found in the secondary school are to
be catalogued much as the snakes of Ireland or the ships of
the Swiss navy — there are none. The point has been em-
phasized sufficiently in preceding sections that provision
for non-clerical business education is an imperative necessity
demanded by modern business conditions and sound educa-
tional theory. Until provision is made for such subjects
commercial education in the secondary school must be far
from adequate.

(3} Ancillary subjects: The present tendency to adapt
almost all the traditional subjects of the secondary-school
program to commercial ends is equally dangerous for com-
mercial-vocational education and for other forms of second-
ary education. A careful re-analysis of the values of many

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 593

subjects of study which have been given a commercial turn
in some schools is necessary. It is probable that for the most
part they will be found to be highly limited and highly
contingent.

III. INDUSTRIAL SUBJECTS

262. Meaning and scope of industrial education. Indus-
try in its broadest sense may include practically all forms of
economic activity. In its narrower sense it is restricted to
those activities which involve the manipulation of raw
materials and their conversion into finished products
through manufacture and mechanical processes. Industrial
education, therefore, in the corresponding narrower sense,
is that division of education whose primary purpose is the
development of industrial efficiency in manufacture and
mechanical processes. Elementary education is concerned
in an indirect way only with industrial education. The
college or higher technical school is the field for higher
technical training. The field of industrial education in the
secondary school is, therefore, training for the development
of vocational efficiency in those industrial activities between
those limited to unskilled labor and those demanding a
higher degree of technical knowledge and training than
can be acquired in the secondary school.

Until within the past few years industrial education in its
proper form has been all but neglected in the American
secondary school. It has been pointed out already that the
manual training movement and the establishment of a few
" technical high schools " failed to accomplish the real ends
of industrial education, the former by taking the direction of
" general discipline," " general manual dexterity," or " cul-
ture," and the latter by becoming merely preparatory schools
to higher technical colleges. Meanwhile European countries

594 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

established relatively effective education in the industrial
arts and some beginning of real industrial education was
made as the result of private initiative in this country.
Slowly the movement toward industrial education has found
its way to a limited extent into the public school system.
Legislation providing for the establishment of industrial
schools for boys and girls began in Massachusetts in 1906,
followed by legislation in Wisconsin in 1907, and by legisla-
tion in several other States later. Notwithstanding rather
extensive development in educational theory and notwith-
standing the somewhat comprehensive legislation provided
in many States it cannot be said that the development of
industrial education in the secondary school has as yet pro-
ceeded far. Relatively few secondary schools at the present
time offer any form of industrial education, and in still fewer
secondary schools has anything like adequate provision
been made for it. Much may be expected, however, in the
near future from the passage of the Smith-Hughes Federal
Law in 1917.

263. Conditions emphasizing industrial education. Many
factors have combined to emphasize the need for industrial
education in the secondary school in this country. They are
in the main those factors outlined briefly above in this
chapter under three heads: (1) developments in educational
theory, (2) developments in the secondary-school population,
and (3) developments in other social institutions. Certain
specific factors, however, deserve special consideration here.
(a) Modern psychological and educational theory postu-
lates that " general education " is very inadequate prepara-
tion for efficiency in industrial activity. (6) It likewise postu-
lates that the values, character, and aims of instruction
should be determined by the character of the activities in
which pupils will later participate, (c) It further postulates
that there are wide ranges of individual differences in the

595

vocational interests and aptitudes of secondary-school
pupils, (d) Within the past three decades increasing large
numbers of boys and girls destined for vocational activitj*
in the industries have entered the secondary school, (e)
Studies in retardation and elimination have shown that the
majority of pupils entering the secondary school leave after
one, two, or three years of secondary education. Such boys
and girls enter the industries in large numbers. (/) Informal
education in the home and community life has lost many
of the stimuli and opportunities for industrial education.
(g) The relative proportion of individuals engaged in indus-
trial pursuits has gradually increased since 1880. l (h) The
constantly increasing division of labor has tended to prevent
those engaging in industrial activities from securing in
industry itself broad training in the trades and crafts,
(i) The development of the factory system of industry has
removed many other stimuli and opportunities for industrial
training, (j) The apprentice system which formerly afforded
valuable industrial education has tended to disappear, only
118,964 apprentices being accounted for in the entire coun-
try in the reports of the 1910 census. (&) With other changes
in industrial organization the relations between employer
and employee have radically changed with the result that the
capitalist employer is concerned with the immediate eco-
nomic productivity of the employee rather than with the
broad training of the beginning employee. (1) International
competition in industry has tended to demand a higher de-
gree of industrial efficiency in this country. (TO) Changes
in the parts played by abundant natural resources and in
dustrial efficiency have created a demand for the increase
of the latter to offset a relative decrease in the former, (n)
The increased mobility of labor has tended to discourage
attempts on the part of employers to train a body of broadly
1 Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. IV, p. 41.

596 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

expert workmen and workwomen who may leave his employ
at any moment after he has gone to the expense of their
industrial education, (o) Compulsory school-attendance
laws and child-labor laws have removed children from indus-
try where they could receive even such industrial training
as industry provides, (p) The school has tended more and
more to occupy boys and girls at ages when they formerly
engaged in industrial activities.

264. Values and aims of industrial subjects. As in the
case of all subjects of study whose primary aims and con-
trolling purposes involve the development of vocational effi-
ciency, the values of industrial subjects in the program of
the secondary school are to be determined by their direct and
specific contributions to the economic- vocational aim of sec-
ondary education. It must be recognized that the prepara-
tion of the worker is one of the necessary aims of secondary
education. It must be recognized that a large proportion
of secondary-school pupils will later engage in industrial oc-
cupations. It must be recognized that other social agencies
than the school, including the industries themselves, do not
provide adequate training for those who participate in indus-
trial activities. Recognition of those three facts renders
imperative provision for industrial education in the second-
ary school. It should be noted in this connection, however,
that acceptance of the validity of claims for industrial sub-
jects in the program of the secondary school does not ne-
cessarily imply that those studies are to be conducted in
the secondary-school building. The question whether the
studies should be provided under school conditions in the
secondary-school building or in the industries themselves
by cooperation between the school authorities and industrial
firms is a matter not of the secondary-school program but
of organization and administration. It will be considered
in Chapter XXI.

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS

597

265. Analysis of industrial occupations. As a basis for
evaluation of some phases of industrial education in the
secondary school we may consider the distribution of in-

TABLE CXLIV. NUMBER OF PERSONS TEN YEARS OF AGE AND

OVER ENGAGED IN PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURING AND MECHANI-
CAL INDUSTRIES, CLASSIFIED BY SEX (1910)*

Occupations

Total

Male

Female

15,595
4,779
31
15
849
38
14,051
447,760
92
10

118,964
89,531
240,519
169,402
174,422
817,120
127,589
449,342
135,519
231,041
111,248
175,098

154,826
82,015
869,478
65,431
317,244
527,714
87,146
385,852
488,049
104,210
256,591
127,906
120,900
337,355
148.304

151,519
88,628
144,607
88,834
167,490
438,063
67,469
181,010
650,260
463,655
291,209
69,570
204,608
59,833
679,310

103,369
84,752
240,488
169,387
173,573
817,082
113,538
1,582
135,427
231,031
111,248
155,358

152,438
75,691
853,679
65,352
313,228
518,935
71,107
350,917
487,956
102,748
251,892
5,459
120,783
334,814
148,304

79,947
79,167
95,715
52,312
154,292
394,175
32,808
121,744
298,221
318,221
60,003
68,788
163,795
59,809
668,766

Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory)

Firemen (except locomotive and fire department) . . .

19,740

2,388
6,324
15,799
79
4,016
8,779
16,039
34,935
93
1,462
4,699
122,447
117
2,541

71,572
9,461
48,892
36,522
13,198
43,888
34,661
59,266
352,039
145,434
231,206
782
40,813
24
10,544

Laborers (not otherwise specified)
Clay glass, and stone industries

Managers and superintendents (manufacturing)

Painters, glaziers, varnishers, enamelers, etc

Semi-skilled operatives (not otherwise specified)

Sewers and sewing machine operators (factory)

Total in manufacturing and mechanical industries .

10,658,881

8,837,901

1,820,980

* Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv, p. 53. Cf. the more detailed analysis OB
pp. 91-94 of that volume.

598 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

dustrial workers according to their principal occupations.
In Table CXLIV are presented figures showing the number
of persons engaged in each of forty-two principal industrial
occupations in 1910.

From this table it will be seen at once that the clothing
and textile trades engage the great majority (nearly two
thirds) of all females in industrial pursuits — dressmaking,
etc., 24.6 per cent; millinery, 6.7 per cent; sewing, 12.7 per
cent; tailoring, 2.2 per cent; laborers in textile industries,
0.9 per cent; semi-skilled operatives in textile industries,
19.3 per cent; total, 66.4 per cent.

The industrial occupations of males are naturally far
more diverse. Nevertheless if in considering the data given
in Table CXLIV we examine fairly specific occupations and
ignore males listed under the headings "general and not
specified laborers," " laborers in all other industries," " semi-
skilled operatives in all other industries," " all others in this
division," and " manufacturers and officials " (these together
composing 27.7 per cent of the entire group), we find but
nine separately listed occupations representing only the six
general fields of metal-working, wood-working, machinist
trades, painting trades, stationary engineering, and textile
trades, engaging each as large a proportion as two per cent
of all industrial male workers — carpentry, 9.2 per cent;
laborers in lumber and furniture industries, 3.5 per cent;
blacksmiths, etc., 2.7 per cent; laborers in metal industries,
5.9 per cent; semi-skilled operatives in metal industries,
4.5 per cent; machinists, 5.5 per cent; painting, etc., 3.8 per
cent; stationary engineers, 2.6 per cent; semi-skilled opera-
tives in textile industries, 3.4 per cent; total, 41.1 per cent
of all male industrial workers. Grouped according to the
six general fields the figures are: wood-working industries,
12.7 per cent; metal-working industries, 13.1 per cent:
machinist trades, 5.5 per cent; painting trades, 3.8 per cent;

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 599

stationary engineers, 2.6 per cent; textile industries, 3.4
per cent.

Further light may be shed on this problem by considering
the industrial occupations of persons classified on a somewhat
different basis as follows:

TABLE CXLV*

7. Building trades : builders and building contractors, brick and stone
masons, laborers not otherwise speci6ed in building and hand trades, paint-
ers, glaziers, varnishers, etc. (building), paper hangers, plasterers, plumb-
ers, gas- and steam-fitters, roofers and slaters, structural iron-workers
(building) — all, 1,799,242; male, 1,781,316; female, 17,926.

77. Metal-working trades: blacksmiths, forgemen, and hammermen,
boiler-makers, filers, grinders, buffers, and polishers (metal), furnace-
men, smelterers, heaters, pourers, etc., jewelers, watchmakers, goldsmiths,
silversmiths, tinsmiths, coppersmiths, laborers not otherwise specified in
iron and steel industries, laborers in other metal industries, moulders,
founders, and casters (metal), rollers and roll hands (metal), semi-skilled
operatives not otherwise specified in iron, steel, and other metal industries,
annealers, and temperers (metal) — total, 1,570,448; male, 1,512,171;
female, 58,277.

777. Clothing trades : dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory),
laborers in clothing industries not otherwise specified, laborers in shoe
factories not otherwise specified, milliners and millinery dealers, semi-
skilled operatives not otherwise specified in clothing industries, semi-
skilled operatives not otherwise specified in shoe factories, sewers and
sewing-machine operators (factory), shoemakers and cobblers (not in
factory), tailors and tailoresses, dyers — total, 1,502,819; male, 543,858;
female, 958,961.

IV. Wood-working trades : cabinet-makers, carpenters, laborers and semi-
skilled operatives not otherwise specified in lumber and furniture industries
— total, 1,343,746; male, 1,326,486; female, 17,260.

V. Textile trades: laborers and semi-skilled operatives in textile indus-
tries not otherwise specified — total, 737,406; male, 369,328; female,
368,078.

VI. Machinist trades: machinists, millwrights, and tool-makers, loom-
fixers, mechanics not otherwise specified, mechanical engineers — total,
550,604; male, 550,469; female, 135.

F77. Food industries: bakers, butchers and dressers (slaughterhouse),
laborers and semi-skilled operatives not otherwise specified in food indus-
tries, laborers and semi-skilled operatives not otherwise specified in
cigar and tobacco industries, laborers and semi-skilled operatives not other-

* Compiled from data given on pages 91 f. of the Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. rv.

600 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

wise specified in liquor, beverage industries, millers of grain, flour, feed,
etc. — total, 518,154; male, 391,538; female, 126,616.

VIII. Engineers (stationary, and firemen) : exclusive of locomotive and
fire department — total, 342,289; male, 342,279; female, 10.

IX. Printing trades: compositors, linotypers, and typesetters, electro-
typers, stereotypers, and lithographers, engravers, pressmen, laborers,
and semi-skilled operatives not otherwise specified in printing and publish-
ing industries — total, 248,656; male, 196,813; female, 51,843.

X. Ceramic trades : laborers and semi-skilled operatives not otherwise
specified in clay, glass, and stone industries — • total, 243,454; male, 231,605;
female, 11,849.

XI. Electric trades : electricians and electrical engineers, laborers not
otherwise specified in electric light and power plants, laborers and semi-
skilled operatives not otherwise specified in electric supply factories — •
total, 179,806; male, 167,127; female, 12,679.

XII. Supervisory and executive occupations : manufacturers and officials,
managers and superintendents (manufacturing), foremen and forewomen
(manufacturing) — total, 535,899; male, 509,998; female, 25,901.

XIII. AU other trades: total, 967,394; male, 811,544; female, 155,850.

XIV. Apprentices: total, 118,964; male, 103,369; female, 15,595.

Table CXLVI indicates the relative numbers of per-
sons engaged in the various industries on the basis of the
preceding classification.

In spite of the wide variety of specialized occupations
falling within each of the general groups considered, in spite
of the variation in different localities, in spite of the fact
that the total number of workers engaged in any industry
does not show the proportion of somewhat skilled workers,
and in spite of the obviously inadequate information afforded
by the figures presented, Tables CXLIV, CXLV, and
CXLVI show that the building, metal-working, clothing,
wood-working, textile, and machinist trades engage by far
the greatest proportion of industrial workers — 70.4 per
cent of all industrial workers, 68.9 per cent of male, and
78.1 per cent of female. The major specialized and skill-
demanding trades involved in those general trades must,
therefore, form the backbone of industrial education in the
secondary school for the country at large.

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS

601

TABLE CXLVI *

Group

Trade* at above classified

Per cent of all en-
gaged in manufac-
turing and mechan-
ical industries

Per cent of all en-
gaged in gainful
occupations

All
(per
cent)

Mole
(per
cent)

Female
(per
cent)

All
(per
cent)

Male
(per
cent)

Female
(per
cent)

I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV

16.9
14.7
14.1
12.6
6.9
5.2
4.9
3.2
2.3
2.3
1.7
5.0
9.1
1.1

20.2
17.1
6.2
15.0
4.2
6.2
4.4
3.9
2.2
2.6
1.9
5.8
9.2
1.1

1.0
3.2
52.7
0.9
20.3
(?)
6.9
(?)
2.8
0.6
0.7
1.4
8.6
0.9

1.6
4.2
3.9
3.5
1.9
1.4
1.3
0.9
0.7
0.7
0.5
1.4
2.6
0.3

5.9
5.0
1.8
4.4

1.2

1.8
1.3
1.1
0.7
0.8
0.6
1.7
2.7
0.3

0.2
0.7
11.9
0.2
4.6
(?)
1.6
(?)
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.4
1.9
0.2

Clothing trades

Textile trades

Machinist trades

Engineers and firemen

Printing trades

Electric trades

Supervisory positions

Apprentices

Total

100.0

27.9

29.3

22.7

* Compiled from data given in Table CXLIV and from data given by the Thirteenth Census
Report (1910), pp. 91 /.

266. Variation in industrial conditions. While the main
fields of industrial activity mentioned in the preceding para-
graph will in all probability suggest the principal lines of
industrial education for the country at large, differing con-
ditions in various localities must affect the specific trades
within those principal divisions and in many cases empha-
size trades engaging a relatively small proportion of industrial
workers throughout the country but engaging a relatively
large proportion of industrial workers within a particular
district or community. Thus in Waterbury, Connecticut,
more than one half of the industrial workers are semi-
skilled or skilled workers in the metal industries; in Tampa,
Florida, more than one half are skilled (few) or semi-skilled
(many) workers in the cigar and tobacco industries; in
Woonsocket, Rhode Island, more than one half are semi-

602 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

skilled (many) or skilled (few) workers in the textile in-
dustries; in Lynn, Massachusetts, more than one half are
semi-skilled (many) or skilled (few) workers in the shoe in-
dustries; etc. On the other hand, in the majority of com-
munities of such size as to warrant and permit any consid-
erable attention to industrial education in the regular public
secondary school, industries are noticeably varied. In any
case an " industrial survey " to ascertain the relative impor-
tance of various trades exemplified in local industries and
to determine the numbers of semi-skilled or skilled work-
ers employed is a necessary preliminary to the selection of
industrial occupations which should be represented by
vocational subjects in the secondary school of any commu-
nity.1

267. The selection of industrial subjects. Some general
principles governing the selection of vocational subjects
were outlined in section 254. They apply with special force
to industrial education in the secondary school. A number
of factors, however, invite particular attention.

(1) The problem of industrial education involves special
difficulties in the small school where pupils who are likely
to engage in industrial activities are too few to permit the
economical introduction of industrial subjects. Apparently
the only solution to that problem is the establishment of
sectional industrial or generally vocational schools or the
introduction of part-time cooperative education. In other
small but somewhat larger schools in somewhat larger
communities where local industrial activities are fairly im-
portant but rather varied and where the number of pupils
likely to engage in industrial occupations is large enough
to warrant the introduction of some industrial education,
the problem of selection of industrial subjects becomes
acute. In such communities any attempt to meet the needs
1 Cf. Report of tlie Minneapolis Survey for Vocational Education.

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 603

of special local industries, except in so far as they may repre-
sent generally important trades, must be discouraged, and
industrial subjects must be chosen which represent occupa-
tions having a steady and general demand throughout the
state or country.

(2) A newly established local industry or an industry for
a time rapidly growing frequently creates a demand for
skilled workers which is but temporary. Care must be taken
that industrial education be provided for those occupations
which have a fairly steady and general demand; e.g., in many
communities the manufacture of various war supplies has
received a tremendous impetus during the European war.
The demand for skilled munition workers is at present
greatly exaggerated and cannot long remain at its present
high status.

(3) In many industries there is a constant change in the
workers employed and the period of service in certain trades
is so short as to preclude opportunity for satisfactory indus-
trial training related to those occupations in the secondary
school.

This constant change, we have already seen, is true of the work-
ers in our canning factories and of those in knitting mills and mills
producing low-grade cotton textiles. Similar instability is found
among the workers on the simpler processes in the making of har-
vesting machinery and in one instance a foundry employing three
thousand men reported twenty-six hundred yearly changes. Where
men and women are continually shifting from one line of employ-
ment to another, the community cannot afford to finance their
vocational training until a study of the trade shall reveal that there
are skilled processes requiring special training which this shifting
group has never received and which might be expected to hold
them more uniformly in one industry.1

(4) In different industries the proportions of skilled, semi-
skilled, and unskilled laborers vary greatly. Thus the indus-

1 H. B. Smith, Establishing Industrial Schools, p. 13.

604 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

trial workers of Minneapolis in 1915 were distributed as
follows :

TABLE CXLVII. DISTBIBUTION OF SKILLED, SEMI-SKILLED,
AND UNSKILLED WORKERS IN THE MANUFACTURING AND ME-
CHANICAL INDUSTRIES OF MINNEAPOLIS, 1915 *

Industries

Skilled

Semi-skilled

Laborers

Total

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Building trades

9,379
5,324
1,236
5,310

1,272
1,031
2,405
1,184
2
307
150

2
2
4,792
175
15
57
6
62

' '2

1,743
144

'S2
134

5,494
839
3

14,936
7,967
6,309
5,485
4,065
3,046
2,807
1,817
932
892
716
349
338
171
3420

Clothing

Supervisors and technicians
Lumber and furniture

1,379
851
76
294
185
440
283
244
203
16
1,110

42
477
45
266
684
121
4
99
8
1
764

1,347
613
272
9
48
18
278
4
126

821

10
17
3
2
13
4
1
2
1

Printing and engraving. . . .
Textile

Boots, shoes, and leather. . .

Liquor and beverage

150
701

Total

28,451
53.4

5,137
9.7

6,968
13.1

2,697
5.0

9,872
18.6

125
0.2

53,250
100.00

Per cent ...

* Report of the Minneapolis Survey for Vocational Education, Bulletin no. 21 of the Na-
tional Society for the Promotion of Vocational Education, p. 15.

Those trades or parts of trades only which offer some oppor-
tunity for the utilization of somewhat skilled workers in
fairly large numbers should be represented by related indus-
trial courses in the secondary school.

(5) Some trades are of such a character that related in-
dustrial training cannot be provided within the secondary
school building and under ordinary school conditions.
Provision can be made for industrial education in such
fields only through part-time work, continuation schools,
or specially organized institutions.

268. " General subjects " modified. The practice initi-
ated in special type vocational schools of adapting " general

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 605

subjects " to special supposed or real industrial needs has
tended to spread to the modification of such subjects for
the same purpose in the regular secondary school. Notwith-
standing the fact that something may legitimately and
economically be done in this direction there is danger that
artificial differentiation may result in damage both to in-
dustrial education and to other educational needs. In
general much of the comment made in section 260 dealing
with clerical and commercial education applies here also.
For instance it must be recognized that courses in English
and social science exist in the secondary-school program for
purposes which are not primarily vocational. It must be
remembered that the worker is also to be a citizen and an
individual. The threefold nature of his activities cannot be
neglected : neither can one group of subjects or one kind of
education lead effectively to all three ends at the same time.
"Industrial English" and " industrial history," however le-
gitimately they may find a place in that part of the school
program dealing specifically with industrial education, can
never take the place of the English and social science de-
signed for other purposes. They must, if justified at all,
be supplements to and not substitutes for related courses
designed to contribute toward the social-civic and indi-
vidualistic-avocational aims of secondary education.

IV. AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS

269. The scope of agricultural education. Although some
attention has been paid to agriculture in certain of the
academies before 1850, the present vocational movement
began with the establishment of special agricultural high
schools in connection with agricultural colleges (first in
Minnesota in 1888). The movement somewhat later spread
to special sectional agricultural high schools but not until

606 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

within the past ten or fifteen years was agricultural educa-
tion introduced into the regular public secondary schools
to any noteworthy extent. Previous to 1906 there were but
few high schools (excepting agricultural high schools) giving
instructionin agriculture.1 In 1912-13 there were about 2300
high schools (2128 ordinary high schools) in the country
teaching agriculture.2 In 1914-15 such instruction was
afforded in 4390 public secondary schools and 83,573 pub-
lic secondary-school pupils were enrolled in agricultural
courses. 3 Favorable legislation granting State and National
aid to agricultural education will in all probability greatly
extend its scope within the next few years, giving greater
and greater importance to the agricultural subjects in the
secondary-school program of studies.

The recency of agricultural education in the public sec-
ondary schools has prevented the development of many
stable policies or practices, particularly since much of the
work in agriculture varies somewhat according to geograph-
ical factors. Lack of even the roughest standardization
renders impossible analysis of practice affecting specific
subjects for agricultural education.

270. Factors emphasizing agricultural education. As is
the case with other forms of vocational education several
factors have combined to emphasize agricultural education
in the secondary school at the present time. The more
important of those factors may be summarized briefly
here, (a.) Modern educational theory cannot recognize the
claim that a "general education" provides satisfactorily
for the life which the agriculturalist must lead. (6) Mod-
ern educational theory postulates that the values, character,
and aims of instruction should be determined by the activ-

1 Davis, B. M., Agricultural Education in the Public Schools, p. 119.

2 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1913), vol. i,
p. 213.

3 Ibid. (191C), vol. ii, p. 497.

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 607

ities in which the pupils will later participate, (c) Within
recent years boys and girls whose destinies in life are found
on the farm have entered the secondary school in increasing
numbers, (d) Within a relatively short period of time the
parts played in production by abundant natural resources
and agricultural efficiency have changed to a marked degree.
If production is to keep pace economically with demand,
the inefficient agricultural work of the past must give way
to a higher degree of efficiency in order to offset the relative
decrease in abundant natural resources, (e) In the field of
animal husbandry in particular the decrease in the amount
of land which may economically be devoted to stock raising
and grazing demands far greater efficiency in order to offset
that loss. (/) Competition in agricultural production has
constantly increased as increased transportation facilities
have extended the field of competition even to international
proportions, (g} The increased application of science to agri-
culture and animal husbandry has tended to demand a higher
degree of knowledge and skill for the successful pursuit of
those occupations, (h) The increased scientific and technical
knowledge and skill demanded for agricultural occupations
has rendered the ordinary life of the boy or girl on the farm
less and less an adequate preparation for efficiency in those
occupations, (i) Compulsory school-attendance laws and
child-labor laws have removed children from early appren-
ticeship on the farm where they formerly received early
agricultural training, (j) The school has tended more and
more to occupy boys and girls at ages when they formerly
were engaged in agricultural activities, (k) There has been
a very noticeable tendency for large numbers of boys and
girls to leave the farm and engage in urban occupations.
The education which has heretofore been afforded the
country boy and girl has encouraged this migration by pro-
viding the kind of education in elementary and secondary

608 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

school which gave little preparation for farm life and much
for city life. (I) More than nine tenths of the public second-
ary schools in the country are found in communities of less
than eight thousand inhabitants and considerably more than
one half of the secondary-school pupils in the country are
found in the small-town or rural communities.1

271. Aims and values of agricultural education. The
aims of the study of agricultural subjects in the secondary
school are obviously those emphasizing the economic-
vocational aim of education. Accordingly the values of
various agricultural subjects in the program are to be de-
termined by the contributions which those subjects may
make to the economic-vocational efficiency of individuals
who will be engaged primarily in agricultural occupations.
Those values are direct and specific, though limited for the
most part to pupils who will participate primarily in agri-
cultural activities. In agricultural education, therefore,
indirect and general aims must be subordinated to direct
and specific aims. Emphasis on "disciplinary values " (them-
selves questionable) is of questionable validity when brought
into such sharp contrast with the direct and specific voca-
tional values of agricultural study in the secondary school.
Hence may be questioned the emphasis by Robison : 2

Reasoning ability not due to heredity results largely from re-
peatedly forming and correcting judgments. Casual examination
of the materials of high school agriculture show that they offer
abundant opportunities for doing this.

272. Analysis of agricultural occupations. For purposes
of securing a basis for agricultural education in the second-
ary school an examination of census statistics is of relatively

1 Cf. Section 32.

2 Robison, C. H., p. 384 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School Edu-
cation. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, Charles Scribner's
Sons.

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS

609

little value. Nevertheless the figures presented below will
at least emphasize the fact that the great majority of agricul-
tural workers is composed of "farmers" and "farm labor-
ers" whose occupations demand a rather general agricul-
tural training rather than training in one limited phase of
agricultural activity. •

TABLE CXLVUE. DISTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURAL WORKERS
IN 1910*

Occupations

Numbers

Per cents

All

Male

Female

All

Male

Female

61,816
35,014
5,865,003
5,975,057

47,591
139,255
133,927

62,975
52,521

44,238

59,240
32,237
5,607,297
4,460,634

39,826
131,421
126,453

62,090
50,847

40,408

2,576
2,777
257,706
1,514,423

7,765
7,834

7,474

885
1,674

3,830

0.5
0.3
47.2
48.1

0.4
1.1
1.1

0.5
0.4

0.4

0.6
0.3
52.9
42.0

0.4
1.2
1.1

0.6
0.5

0.4

0.1
0.2
83.8
14.3

0.4
0.4
0.4

0.1
0.1

0.2

Farmers

Foremen, farm, dairy, gar-

Gardeners, florists, fruit grow-

Garden, greenhouse, etc., labor-
ers

Stock herders, drovers, feeders,

Other agricultural and animal
workers

Total

12,417,397

10,610,453

1,806,944

100.0

* From p. 91 of the Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv. In the table given above are
omitted figures for fishermen, oystermen, lumbermen, etc. Figures for female farm laborers
are probably somewhat unreliable.

The most noteworthy fact emerging from these figures
is that "farmers" and "farm laborers" comprise more than
95 per cent of all agricultural and animal-husbandry work-
ers. The "average farmer" engages in a wide variety of
agricultural activities, including dairy work, poultry hus-
bandry, and other forms of animal husbandry, crop raising,
orcharding, etc. While specialization in agricultural occu-
pations is constantly increasing the great majority of
agricultural workers must engage in general farm work.

610 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

The preparation of such persons must, therefore, cover a
relatively wide range of agricultural activities. In many
cases the failure of the small farmer is a direct result of his
inability or unwillingness to combine several different but
more or less supplementary phases of agricultural and
animal-husbandry activities.

273. Variation in agricultural activities. While some of
the elements entering into agricultural education in the
secondary school remain relatively constant as far as geo-
graphical factors are concerned, other important elements
must vary widely according to local conditions of soil,
climate, topography, population distribution, and other
factors. (1) Certain phases of agricultural and animal-
husbandry occupations may legitimately receive special
attention in States like Arizona where stock raising, etc.,
engages the activity of more than one quarter of those
engaged in agricultural or animal-husbandry pursuits, in
parts of California where more than eighteen per cent of all
agricultural workers are engaged in horticulture, fruit-
growing, nurseries, etc., on Long Island where the majority
of farmers are engaged in truck-farming. (2) Special phases
of agricultural pursuits may be emphasized according to
soil and climatic or general topographical conditions; e.g.,
note the importance of dairy husbandry in southwestern
Washington, of cattle and horse raising in central Washing-
ton, and of grain production in eastern Washington. The
selection of certain kinds of agricultural education in the
secondary school must be determined to some extent by
predominant local agricultural occupations. The general
principles governing such selection have been outlined in
previous sections.

274. The adaptation of " general " subjects. As with
other forms of vocational education there has developed
a tendency to modify instruction in several " general " sub-

611

jects in the secondary-school program to the needs of special
groups of pupils whose manifest destinies involve primarily
agricultural occupations. For the most part such modifica-
tion and adaptation has taken place in connection with the
natural sciences, especially in connection with the biological
sciences. The important basic bearing of the biological
sciences on agriculture and the fact that the secondary-
school population in rural communities tends to be roughly
homogeneous as far as its vocational needs are concerned
appear to give justification to the practice of directing the
natural-science work for agricultural pupils along lines ap-
propriate to the pursuit of agriculture and animal hus-
bandry. As yet little attempt has been made to modify
other " general " subjects for the purposes of agricultural
education and the objections raised to "vocational English"
and "vocational -social science" in connection with clerical,
commercial, and industrial education need not here be
considered.

V. DOMESTIC SUBJECTS

275. Scope and field of domestic education. Under the
general title of "domestic subjects" are here considered
those subjects related to the various activities which have
developed in the fields of housekeeping and homemaking.
In this category fall such subjects as are commonly listed
under the titles "household arts," "household sciences,"
and many "practical arts for girls" —covering the selec-
tion, purchase, preparation, and serving of food; the se-
lection, purchase, preparation, and care of clothing; the
selection, purchase, use, care, and arrangement of house-
hold apparatus; the care and training of little children, care
for household sanitation and family health, etc.

As is the case with the practical arts in general those

612 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

dealing with the home and family have been almost totally
neglected in the secondary school until within the past few
years and even at present receive very inadequate atten-
tion. Within the past decade or two domestic subjects
covering a relatively wide range of domestic activities have
been introduced in some of the larger secondary schools.
In smaller schools the tendency has been to introduce ele-
mentary courses in cooking and sewing. In many secondary
schools no domestic subject has yet found its way into the
program of studies.

The late development of instruction in domestic subjects
has not yet permitted the establishment of many stable
policies and practices and domestic education must at
present be considered as in its experimental and formative
stage. No exact analysis of existing domestic subjects can
be made where the materials, organization, and methods of
teaching them differ widely in different schools.

276. Factors emphasizing domestic education. The
primary factor emphasizing the importance of domestic arts
in the program of the secondary school is, of course, recog-
nition of the fact that the majority of girls will later be en-
gaged predominantly in the activities of homemaking and
housekeeping. It is true that in the past, even more than
in the present, the home has been the sphere of woman's
activity. Despite the fact, however, that women have to
an ever-increasing extent engaged in activities outside the
home, and in spite of the fact that many activities have been
removed from the home, several factors have tended to
emphasize the importance of secondary-school training in
the domestic arts at the present time. Among those factors
may be mentioned the following, (a) The education hereto-
fore emphasized in the secondary school has to a consider-
able extent tended to guide the girl away from activities
peculiar to the home. (6) Compulsory school-attendance

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 613

laws and other factors have tended to bring more girls into
the secondary school and to hold them there for a longer
time. The secondary school has made such demands on the
time and energy of girls that the amount of domestic train-
ing in the home has been noticeably curtailed, (c) Greatly
extended opportunities for girls and women earning a liveli-
hood in industry have decreased the amount of relatively
cheap " hired help " in the home, thereby tending to some
extent to offset the effect of labor-saving devices in the
home and to increase the need for efficiency in domestic
work, (d) Changed conditions of family life (e.g., the with-
drawal of the mother from household work to factory work
or other work outside the home) have in many cases ren-
dered traditional methods of transmitting household arts
from mother to daughter inadequate, (e) The modern scien-
tific study of food values and nutrition of sanitation and
hygiene has lent new meaning to household work. (/) The
increased cost of many staple food commodities (especially
meats) has emphasized the need for economical efficiency
in the selection, purchase, and preparation of food. (<?) The
preparation of many articles of food and clothing outside
the home has both simplified and complicated the econom-
ical and effective management of the household; e.g., note
the dangers of adulterated food, the waste of shoddy cloth-
ing, deception in the sale of commodities, and the knowledge
required to safeguard the family health and the family purse
against such dangers, (h) The conditions of modern life,
especially in the city and among foreigners, call for read-
justments in home and family life that are fraught with
danger unless guarded against. In this readjustment the
secondary school must play its part.

277. Females in various occupations. According to the
Census Report for 1910 there were 8,075,772 females ten
years of age or over engaged in " gainful occupations " (i.e.,

614 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

not in their own homes). Of that number 637,086 were
between ten and fifteen years of age, and 1,847,606 between
sixteen and twenty years of age, leaving 5,591,086 females
twenty-one years of age or over engaged in such occupations.
These constituted 22.8 per cent of all females twenty -one
years of age or older in 1910. l The remaining 18,964,668
women were for the most part engaged in occupations in
their own homes. In addition a large proportion of those
engaged in gainful occupations to some extent participated
in domestic activities.

Analysis of figures presented in the census returns under
the title of " domestic and personal service " is of relatively
little value for the present purpose. Statistics there pre-
sented indicate that of women engaged in occupations thus
classified were for the most part employed as servants
(51.7 per cent), laundresses (23.6 per cent), housekeepers
(professionally private, boarding and lodging 12.4 per cent)
— total 87.7 per cent.2 The total number engaged in those
occupations (2,530,846 in all " domestic and personal serv-
ice") is, however, relatively insignificant, when comparted
with the number engaged in domestic occupations in their
own homes and excluded from the above-presented census
returns. It is to be noted moreover that many phases of
domestic activity are essentially the same whether carried
on in the individual's own home or for hire in other situa-
tions, so that domestic arts education in the secondary
school may prepare almost equally well for the majority of
domesticities wherever involved.

278. Values of domestic education for girls. The chief
activities of the great majority of women will always be
found in the home. Even for the relatively small proportion
of girls whose " profession " or " trade " will lie in activities
outside the home, participation in some of the major activ-

1 Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv, p. 73. 2 Ibid., p. 94.

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 615

ities of the home is inevitable, and the contingency is high
that sooner or later every woman will be the central figure
controlling the destinies of the home and family. For these
reasons it is probable that some form and some amount of
domestic education should constitute a part of the second-
ary education of all girls. Beyond doubt important respon-
sibilities for homemaking must rest on the secondary-school
boys who will later become partners in homemaking. It
is, therefore, imperative that some preparation for such
activities as are therein involved should be found in their
education in the secondary school. Nevertheless it is prob-
able that any attempt to enroll secondary-school boys in any
specifically organized domestic subject would wreck itself
on the reefs of antagonistic interests and .attitudes. In all
likelihood, therefore, such homemaking education as may
profitably be provided for secondary-school boys must be
provided in connection with civics, vocational arts, and
possibly science and economics.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. Make a study of State provision for vocational education in America.

2. Compare provision for vocational education in America and in Ger-
many, France, England, or Switzerland.

3. Investigate the attitude of labor organizations to vocational education.

4. In any high-school canvas the occupations of pupils' parents.

5. In any high-school canvas the vocational interests of pupils in various
grades.

6. For any industry or part of an industry make an analysis of the knowl-
edges and skills involved according to the length of time ordinarily
required for their acquirement.

7. In any city examine the "working certificates" granted to boys and
girls leaving school before the completion of the full period of com-
pulsory attendance. What occupations do they enter?

8. Consider the pupils of any one "class" who entered the first year of the
high school five or six years ago. Analyze the occupations which they
have entered, classifying them according to the stage at which the
different groups left school.

9. Make a study of existing apprentice systems in this country.

616 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

10. Make a study of the occupations found in a large department store. For
which can the secondary school profitably provide vocational training?

11. Make a study of the costs of various forms of vocational and practical
arts education in the secondary schools.

12. Make a study of present provisions for practical and vocational arts
education in the secondary schools of any one State.

13. In any high school determine to what extent pupils leaving school either
before or after graduation enter occupations closely related to voca-
tional studies which they have taken in the secondary school.

14. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of providing voca-
tional studies in the secondary school itself and of providing for part-
time vocational training in the occupation itself?

15. Debate this proposition: "Secondary education should be restricted to
liberal studies because they can be provided nowhere else. Vocational
training should not be provided in the secondary school because it can
be secured better in the vocation itself."

16. To what extent do pupils' vocational interests change during the sec-
ondary-school course?

17. Discuss the possible effects of the Smith-Hughes Bill on secondary
education in the United States.

SELECTED REFERENCES

I. General:

Ayres, L. P., Constant and Variable Occupations and their Bearing
on Problems of Vocational Education. (Russell Sage Foundation.)

Brown, J. S., et al., "The Place of Vocational Subjects in the High-
School Curriculum," Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the
Scientific Study of Education, part n, pp. 9-52.

Bloomfield, M., The Vocational Guidance of Youth.

Carlton, F. T., Education and Industrial Evolution.

Davenport, E., Education for Efficiency, especially chaps, i-vn.

Dutton, S. T., and Snedden, D., The Administration of Public
Education in the United States, chap. xxn.

Gillette, J. M., Vocational Education.

Judd, C. H., The Psychology of High-School Subjects, chaps, xi-

XIII.

Leavitt, F. M., "Some Sociological Phases of the Movement for

Industrial Education," American Journal of Sociology, vol.

xvin, pp. 352-60.
Leavitt, F. M., "The Relation of the Movement for Vocational and

Industrial Education to the Secondary Schools," School Review,

vol. xix, pp. 85-95.
Lodge, T. H., "Vocational Subjects in the Secondary School,"

Educational Review, vol. xxxix, pp. 333-41.

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 617

National Education Association, Report of Committee on Voca-
tional Education, Vacationed Secondary Education, Bureau of
Education Bulletin (1916) no. 21.

Snedden, D., The Problem of Vocational Education.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chaps, vi-x.

United States Commissioner of Education, Reports.
II. Commercial and clerical education:

Bartholomew, W. E., "Fundamental Aims in the Teaching of
Bookkeeping," Proceedings of the National Education Association
(1916), pp. 362-65.

Brett, G. P., "The Need of Commercial Education," Independent,
vol. LXXII, pp. 728-30.

Hartog, P. J., "Commercial Education in the United States,"
(Board of Education for England and Wales), Special Reports on
Educational Subjects, vol. xi.

Herrick, C. A., Meaning and Practice of Commercial Education.

Johnson, J. F., in Report of the United States Commissioner of Edu-
cation (1913), vol. i, pp. 235-48.

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganiza-
tion of Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on
Business Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. ix.

Stevens, B. M., Boys and Girls in Commercial Work, Cleveland
Education Survey.

Thompson, F. V., Commercial Education in Public Secondary Schools.

Thompson, F. V., in Reports of the United States Commissioner of
Education (1915), vol. i, pp. 279-93; (1916), vol. i, pp. 219-36.
III. Industrial education:

Arnett, L. D., "Educational Outlook based on Occupations,"
Pedagogical Seminiary, vol. xn, pp. 334-38.

Carlton, F. T., Education and Industrial Evolution.

Cleveland Education Survey: Shaw, F. L., The Building Trades;
Bryner, E., The Garment Trades; Lutz, R. R., The Metal Trades;
Shaw, F. L., The Printing Trades; Lutz, R. R., Wage-Earning and
Education.

Dean, A. D., The Worker and the State.

Hanus, P. H., Beginnings in Industrial Education.

Harvey, L. D., "The Need, Scope, and Character of Industrial
Education hi the Public School System," Proceedings of the Na-
tional Education Association (1909), pp. 49-70.

Johnston, C. H., "The Social Significance of Various Movements
for Industrial Education," Educational Review, vol. xxxvii, pp.
160-80.

Kerschensteiner, G., Organization und Lehrpldne der obligatorischen
Fach- und Fortbildungschulen fur Knaben in Miinchen.

618 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, Reports.

National Council of Education, Report of the Committee on the Place
of Industries in Public Education, Proceedings of the National
Education Association (1910), pp. 652-59, 680-788, especially
pp. 731-66.

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization
of Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Industrial
Arts, Bureau of Education Bulletin.

National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education Bulle-
tins.

Paquier, J. B., L' Enseignement professional en France.

Smith, H. B., Establishing Industrial Schools.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. vir.

United States Bureau of Labor, Bulletin (1906) no. 67, Conditions
of Entrance into the Principal Trades.

United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin no. 162, Voca-
tional Education Survey of Richmond, Virginia.

United States Commissioner of Labor, Seventeenth Annual Report
(1910), Trade and Technical Education.

United States Commissioner of Labor, Twenty-fifth Annual Report
(1910), Industrial Education.

Vanderlip, F. A., Business and Education.

Wright, C. D., The Apprenticeship System in its Relation to Industrial

Education, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1908) no. 6.
IV. Agricultural education:

American Association for the Advancement of Agricultural Teach-
ing, Agricultural Education in Secondary Schools, Bureau of
Education, Bulletin (1912) no. 6; Agricultural Instruction in
Secondary Schools, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1913) no.
14.

Bailey, L. H., "Education by Means of Agriculture," Cyclopedia oj
American Agriculture, vol. iv, pp. 467-77.

Betts, G. H., New Ideals in Rural Schools.

Bricker, G. A., The Teaching of Agriculture in the High School.

Cubberley, E. P., Rural Life and Education.

Davenport, E., Education for Efficiency.

Davis, B. M., Agricultural Education in the Public Schools.

Giles, F. M., "The Teaching of Agriculture in the High School,"
School Review, vol. xvii, pp. 154-65.

Knapp, S. A., "Shall Agriculture be Taught in the Secondary
Schools of the United States?" Southern Educational Review,
vol. iv, pp. 53-64.

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganiza-
tion of Secondary Education, Report of Committee on Agriculture,
Bureau of Education Bulletin.

PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 619

National Society for the Study of Education, "Agricultural Edu-
cation in Secondary Schools," Eleventh Yearbook, part II.

Robison, C. H., Agricultural Instruction in the Public High Schools
of the United States.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. vin.

United States Commissioner of Education, Reports.
V. Domestic arts education :

Camp, K. B., "Some Phases of the Scientific and Social Value of
Domestic Science in Education," Proceedings of the Eastern Man-
ual Training Association (1903), pp. 84-90.

Carlton, F. T., Education and Industrial Evolution, pp. 174-80.

Condit, E. C., "The Economic Value of Domestic Science," Atlantic
Educational Journal, vol. in, pp. 24-28.

Day, L. G., "The Place of Domestic Science in the Public School
Curriculum, Proceedings of the Wisconsin's Teachers' Association
(1907), pp. 75-78.

Gladfelter, L. M., "The Strongest Plea for Domestic Science,"
Proceedings of the Eastern Manual Training Association (1901),
pp. 88-94.

Kinne, H., "The Three Values of Domestic Science and Art in
the Schools," Proceedings of the Eastern Manual Training Asso-
ciation (1904), pp. 57-69.

Kinne, H., "Vocational Value of the Household Arts," Proceedings
of the National Education Association (1910), pp. 55-59.

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganiza-
tion of Secondary Education, Report of Committee on Household
Arts, Bureau of Education Bulletin.

Norton, A. P., "The Social Value of Domestic Science," Proceedings
of the Eastern Manual Training Association (1904), pp. 83-96.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xxm.

Snow, M. S., "The Place of Domestic Economy in the Curriculum,"
Proceedings of the Western Drawing and Manual Training Asso-
ciation (1908), pp. 40-44.

United States Commissioner of Education, Reports.
VI. Manual training:

Bailey, H. T., Instruction in the Fine and Manual Arts in the United
States, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1909) no. 6.

Chamberlain, A. H., "The Place and Policy of the Manual Training
High School," Proceedings of the Eastern Manual Training Asso-
ciation (1905), pp. 10-20.

Crane, W. I., "A Plea for the Education of the Hand," Proceedings
of the Eastern Manual Training Association (1902), pp. 27-39.

Crawshaw, F. D., "What Can the High Schools Do Better to Help
the Industries?" Manual Training Magazine, vol. xm, pp. 193-
204.

620 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Davis, B. M., "The Present Status of Manual Training in Its Rela-
tion to Industrial Education in the Rural Schools," Manual
Training Magazine, vol. xi, pp. 456-61.

Dean, A. D., "Relation of Manual Training in Public Schools to
Industrial Education and Efficiency," Craftsman, vol. xiv,
pp. 74-81.

Fitch, J. G., Educational Aims, pp. 145-76.

Morrison, G. B., "The Present Status and Future of Manual Train-
ing in the High School, "Fourth Yearbook of the National Society
for the Scientific Study of Education, part n, pp. 18-37.

Noyes, W., "The Ethical Values of the Manual and Domestic
Arts," Manual Training Magazine, vol. xi, pp. 201-13.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. x.

Usherwood, T, S., "The Place of Manual Training in the Curriculum
of the Secondary School," Manual Training, vol. ix, pp. 136-39,
158-64.

Williams, S. H., "The Educative Value of Manual Training,"
Manual Training Magazine, vol. xi, pp. 36-45, 158-67, 252, 260.

Extended bibliographies:

Commercial education: Bureau of of Education, Bulletin (1913) no. 22,
pp. 64-65; Herrick C. A., Meaning and Practice of Commercial Educa-
tion, pp. 350-70.

Industrial education: Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1913) no. 22,
pp. 7 ff; Technical Education, Bulletin no. 6, published by Teachers
College, Columbia University; Richards, C. R., Selected Bibliography
on Industrial Education, Bulletin no. 2 of the National Society for the
Promotion of Industrial Education.

Agricultural education: Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1912) no. 10;
Davis, B. M. Agricultural Education in the Public Schools; Robison,
C. H., Agricultural Education in the Public School of the United States.

Domestic arts education: Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1912) no. 10.

Manual training: Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1913) no. 22, pp. 79-83.

General bibliography of vocational education: Bureau of Education,
Bulletin (1913) no. 22.

CHAPTER XVIII

THE PLACE OF .ESTHETIC ARTS IN THE PROGRAM
I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

279. Historical position in the program. The aesthetic
arts as educational instruments occupied a position in prim-
itive and early civilized society which modern educators can
with difficulty realize. The best example of their use is
found among the Athenians, in whose scheme of education
the aesthetic arts were made the fundamental vehicles of
intellectual, religious, moral, social, and physical training.
Aristotle mentions four branches of education customarily
afforded : reading and writing, gymnastic, music, and (some-
times) drawing or painting. Of these the first constituted
but preliminary training and the last occupied a doubtful
position, so that gymnastic and music (in the Greek sense)
comprised by far the major part of Greek education. Thus
Plato: l

Education has two branches, — one of gymnastic, which is
concerned with the body, and the other of music, which is designed
for the improvement of the soul.

The whole choral art is also in our view the whole of education
and of this art, rhythms and harmonies, having to do with the
voice, form a part. . . . And the movement of the body and the
movement of the voice have a common form which is rhythm, but
they differ, in that one is gesture, and the other song. . . . And
the sound of the voice which reaches and educates the soul, we
have ventured to term music. . . . And the movement of the body,
which, when regarded as an amusement, we termed dancing; when
pursued with a view to the improvement of the body, according
to the rules of art, may be called gymnastic.

1 Plato, The Laws, Book vii and Book vi.

622 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Gymnastic, in the Greek sense of the term, had as one of
its chief purposes the aesthetic aim of developing harmony
and grace of bodily movement: for the accomplishment of
this end dancing was one of the principal educational means.
Music, in the Greek sense of the term, included music in the
modern sense (including vocal and instrumental music),
poetry, the mimetic arts, and literature in general. In this
connection it must be remembered that early Greek litera-
ture was almost exclusively poetic, that with the Greeks
poetry was always related to music, and that poetry and
song were the vehicles of social and religious traditions and
ideals intimately connected with their life. The important
fact to be noted is that music thus embodied racial ideals
and traditions in a form which lent highly emotionalized
value to the content. The Greeks, probably more than any
other people, recognized the importance of emotional ele-
ments in determining the unconscious behavior of individ-
uals and society. No race has ever made more effective use
of the aesthetic arts as instruments of education. After the
time of the Greeks the aesthetic arts practically disappeared
from the program of education, not to reappear until the
end of the eighteenth century or even later, and then as
very inadequate educational instruments. The one excep-
tion to this statement is to be found at times in connection
with the aesthetic side of literature.

In the Latin grammar school of the American colonies
the aesthetic arts had no place, except in so far as they may
have been related to literary study. Doubtless drawing
and music first found their way into the American second-
ary school through the academy. Thus at least as early as
1837 drawing, vocal music, instrumental music, and archi-
tecture had been introduced into some academies in New
York State. In some schools of uncertain status absurdly
elaborate provision was made for aesthetic arts in the edu-

THE AESTHETIC ARTS 623

cation of girls as indicated by the offerings of the Armston
School of the late eighteenth century.

In the public high school drawing first made its appear-
ance in the Girls' High School of Boston in 1826 when map-
drawing and the principles of perspective were introduced.
In 1829 " linear drawing " was made an elective subject in
the English Classical (High) School of Boston. The develop-
ment of drawing as a study in the public secondary school
was of slow growth, however, until mechanical drawing
received impetus through the manual training and technical
high-school movement in the last quarter of the nineteenth
century. Recently, the arts of form, design, and color have
received constantly increasng attention both because of
their relation to the industrial and household arts and be-
cause of increased recognition of their importance per se.

Doubtless vocal music of an informal character early was
found in the public high school. Its first mention as a spe-
cific subject of study is found in the High School of North-
ampton, Massachusetts, in 1837, when nearly all girls in that
school were reported to be engaged in its study. Through-
out the nineteenth century its development was slow and
sporadic, though eventually it was made a regular part of
high-school work in the form of rather ineffective chorus
work by the entire high-school pupil body once or twice a
week in the majority of schools. Within recent years there
has been manifest a distinct tendency to provide far more
effective instruction in music in the public high schools and
in some notable instances to provide instruction not only in
vocal music but also in instrumental music.

On the whole, -and with the possible exception of litera-
ture, instruction in the aesthetic arts throughout the nine-
teenth century was never effective as far as the secondary
school was concerned. In mechanical drawing alone was
effective instruction provided and there the emphasis was

624 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

placed on that subject for its industrial and technical values
primarily. The past decade, however, has given promise of
distinct improvement.

280. Present status. The aesthetic arts at present are
manifested in the American secondary school in connection
with numerous subjects of study found in the program:
music, literature, drawing, painting and design, manual
arts, clothing arts, household arts, physical training — sub-
jects ranging all the way from those in which the aesthetic
element is dominant to those in which it may be subordi-
nated almost entirely to other elements. Thus music has
its place in the secondary-school program largely for its aes-
thetic values. Literature appears to share its values more
evenly between the aesthetic and the social. Drawing,
painting and other phases of design are on the borderline
between aesthetic arts and practical arts, swinging now
to one side now to the other according to the school and
teacher. In manual arts, clothing arts, and household arts
the purposes involved are dominantly utilitarian, the
aesthetic element varying in prominence according to the
materials employed and the teaching. Physical training is
dominated by the conception of health values to which the
aesthetic elements are subordinated.

It must be recognized, in spite of noteworthy exceptions
in certain schools, that the American secondary school
minimizes the aesthetic training of pupils, save possibly in
connection with literature. Music, while regularly finding
a place in the program of studies, is commonly limited to
relatively ineffective group work in which the entire school
body participates (theoretically) one OP two periods per
week. Few secondary schools in the country at present
afford opportunity for effective training in music as one of
the studies entitled to attention similar to that afforded
\ other subjects of study. The arts of design (drawing, paint-

THE .ESTHETIC ARTS 625

ing, etc.) at present manifest a tendency toward rapid
development, especially in connection with industrial train-
ing and the practical arts. This development has not, how-
ever, taken place hi the majority of smaller schools.

281. Fundamental principles involved. Two fundamental
principles are involved in determining the values of the
study of the aesthetic arts hi the secondary school: (1) it
must be recognized that the aesthetic arts represent the
results of original tendencies of human nature to manifest
its emotional states in satisfying form; (2) it must also be
recognized that the results of the expression of such emo-
tional states tend to spread similar emotions to others and
thus to have social bearing.1 Hence, as Dewey states:

Viewed both psychologically and socially, the arts represent
not luxuries and superfluities but fundamental forces of develop-
ment.

By far the major portion of the secondary-school cur-
riculum tends to emphasize the intellectual development and
to neglect or to minimize the emotional development of the
pupils. Such a situation cannot be justified as long as the
emotions play such a prominent part in life as they do and
should. The skeptic concerning the important part played
by the aesthetic arts in modern life may well consider the
erotic and dithyrambic music and song which attracts the
secondary-school pupil and others, the character of modern
dancing, the abundance of neurotic literature which is the
common pabulum of secondary-school pupils in book and
magazine, the character of the popular " musical comedy,"
and the blatant and gaudy magazine cover which passes for
art. If interested in municipal affairs and community life,
he may well compare conditions in communities where art

1 Cf. Dewey, J., pp. 57^-80 of Monroe, P. (EoUtor), Principles of Second-
ary Education.

626 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

is valued with those where art is decried or neglected. In
America less than in most countries do the ordinary sur-
roundings, apart from nature, afford stimuli to aesthetic
appreciation and production. In America less than in most
countries have traditions and ideals been perpetuated in
aesthetic forms which might enhance their intrinsic value.
In America more than in most countries should the school
aim to do what the artificial environment does not — de-
velop the aesthetic arts.

282. Values of the aesthetic arts. For the majority of
pupils the basic values of the study of aesthetic arts in the
secondary school, are doubtless to be found in the contribu-
tions which that study may make to the individualistic-
avocational aim of education — in the development of
ability worthily to utilize leisure, properly to enjoy life, and
to express personality. It must be recognized, however,
that the aesthetic arts are so closely related to other fields
of study and activity that it becomes impossible in most
cases to separate them other than for purposes of analysis.
The social and aesthetic elements are so closely interwoven in
the study of literature that it is a serious mistake to attempt
their dissociation. The aesthetic element separated from the
content element of literature becomes a barren abstraction.
Its content separated from the aesthetic element loses that
emotional appeal which gives literature much of its im-
pelling force in determining thought, attitude, and action.
Thus too the aesthetic arts of design are so intricately in-
volved in the industrial arts, in the clothing arts, and in the
domestic arts that the two elements should not be dissoci-
ated. No sharp line of distinction can properly be drawn
between the aesthetic arts and the practical arts. Any
attempt to do so must result in great loss to both. In physi-
cal exercise also we are beginning to realize that the aesthetic
has its place. The schoolboy and the bleacherite recognize

THE AESTHETIC ARTS 627

and appreciate " form " in athletics and, especially for girls,
dancing has begun to find a recognized place in physical
exercise.

It is, of course, a fact that every subject of study and most
major activities of life in which the secondary-school pupil
is likely later to engage involve some elements of aesthetics
and have their emotional sides. Failure to develop those
elements is a pedagogical error affecting secondary education
to-day.

II. LITERATURE

283. ^Esthetic art and literature. By far the most com-
monly and most extensively studied aesthetic art in the
secondary-school program is literature. In Chapter XII
the values of the study of literature were considered with
particular reference to content values. It was there sug-
gested that the fundamental values of the study arose from
its contribution to the social-civic aim and the individual-
istic aim of secondary education. In particular it was sug-
gested that through the study of literature the pupil is
brought into contact (vicariously) with human experiences
and human conduct, and becomes acquainted with the facts,
traditions, and ideals of society. Such contact and acquain-
tance cannot but affect vitally the life of the pupil. It is
through the emotional factor which makes literature, how
ever, that those facts, traditions, and ideals, which form th
content of the study, take on a large part of their impelling
power. It was further suggested that the integrating func-
tion of secondary education was aided by the study of liter-
ature through the arousal of common ideals and tendencies
to act. Here again it is the aesthetic element which enhances
those ideals and tendencies to act by adding emotional
value. Finally it was suggested that the study of literature

628 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

contributed to the ability worthily to enjoy leisure by es-
tablishing standards and tastes in reading and by increas-
ing the pupil's ability to enjoy good literature. This means
nothing more or less than training in aesthetic appreciation.
In so far as the development of ability to create literature
or even to express one's self well is affected by the study of
literature, aesthetic art on the expressive side is created.

The aesthetic element in literature naturally finds its
greatest strength in poetry. Content elements doubtless
must always be the primary factors determining the selec-
tion of materials in prose literature, the aesthetic elements
being a secondary consideration. In poetry, however, the
aesthetic elements should equal or transcend the content
elements as controlling factors determining the selection
of materials.

III. Music

284. Present status of the study of music. At the present
time some instruction in music is probably provided in every
public secondary school. In the vast majority of cases, how-
ever, such instruction is restricted to one or two periods of
chorus work which is frequently of a useless or worse than
useless character — worse than useless in many instances
because it arouses a positive distaste for the study of music
and an opposition to the ineffective work which is at-
tempted. According to the Report of the Commissioner of
Education for the school year 1914-15 pupils were en-
gaged in the study of vocal music as indicated in the follow-
ing table:

TABLE CXLIX *

Public High Schools ................... 367,188 31.50

Private High Schools .................. 47,467 37.76

All Secondary Schools .................. 415,655 32. 19

* Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, pp. 487-89.

THE .ESTHETIC ARTS 629

These figures are difficult to interpret properly, since in all
probability they include in part figures for pupils who en-
gage merely in certain general chorus work and in part
pupils taking special elective courses in technical music. For
pupils engaged in such courses and in courses in instrumental
music no figures are available. Nor can any reliable estimate
be made of the educational results of such music instruction
as is sometimes provided through the organization of extra-
curriculum orchestras, voluntary choruses, and musical clubs.

285. The social-civic values of music. The study of music
is not ordinarily conceived as possessing social-civic values.
Nevertheless the social value of the study of music is not to
be overlooked. It should be recognized that social attitudes
and actions are not controlled exclusively by activity of the
intellect and that emotional factors play no unimportant
part in the determination of attitudes and actions. Through
the enjoyment of music may be developed emotional tones
in the individual or group which powerfully affect attitudes
toward every form of activity, social, civic, vocational, and
personal. Hence the importance of music in military affairs,
in the church, in school group activities, and in general
wherever large groups of people are assembled for common
activity. For the development of common emotional atti-
tudes in groups united for any purpose few instruments
can compete with music. For example, the singing of the
" Marseillaise," of the " Wacht am Rhein," of the " Star-
Spangled Banner," of " God Save the King," may serve a
social-civic purpose, where any amount of reasoning might
prove relatively ineffective. As one of the commonest forms
of group activity for the utilization of leisure, music also
serves a distinct social purpose. As long as music continues
to be a carrier of common sentiment and ideals, it must
continue to have social-civic values.

286. Economic-vocational values of music. The voca-

630 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

tional values of the study of music have been strangely over-
looked in the secondary school. The number of persons
engaged in the musical profession is by no means negligible
from the viewpoint of vocational education. In this connec-
tion it is to be noted that, whereas in most general fields of
vocational activity a relatively small amount of elementary
facts, principles, and processes is common to the various
subdivisions of occupations classified under one general
bead, in the field of music there is a common foundation of
;echnical knowledge underlying all the special subdivisions
of the general field. Hence, there exists a considerable body
of musical education which may be of definite vocational
value to individuals engaging in the several branches of
the musical profession.1

287. Individualistic-avocational values of music. For
the majority of pupils in the secondary school the primary
values of the study of music must be found in the contribu-
tions which it makes to the individualistic-avocational aim
of secondary education — the preparation of the individual
worthily to enjoy his leisure, assimilate the musical inherit-
ance of society, and develop the expression of his own per-
sonality in ways which are not designed primarily for the
attainment of social-civic or economic- vocational efficiency.
As one of the important means for the utilization of leisure,
for the expression of certain forms of personal feeling, as an
instrument deeply affecting emotional tones of the indi-
vidual and of groups, as an art closely linked up with poetry,
song, drama, the dance, and other forms of aesthetic ex-
pression — as involving all these elements music deserves
far greater attention in the secondary school than it now
receives in most instances.

1 According to the Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv, p. 93, the
number of people engaged primarily as musicians and teachers of music
was: total, 139,310; male, 54,832; female, 84,478.

THE AESTHETIC ARTS 631

288. Three groups of pupils to be considered. In a rough
classification pupils in the secondary school may be divided
into three general groups: (1) those who possess distinct
interest and capacity in musical accomplishment ; (2) those
who possess distinct interest and capacity in musical
appreciation but only a moderate interest or capacity for
musical accomplishment; (3) those who possess no interest
or capacity in musical accomplishment and only a moderate
interest or capacity for musical appreciation. Obviously
no line of clear distinction can be drawn between group (2)
and group (1) or (3). In fact it is to be hoped and expected
that in their progress through the school many pupils will
pass from group (2) to group (1) and from group (3) to
group (2).

289. Courses emphasizing musical accomplishment.
Attention has been called above to the fact that an appre-
ciable number of secondary-school pupils are destined to
become professional musicians. Many others are destined
to become part-time musicians and more or less skilled
amateurs. The number of pupils thus classified in any
school may to some degree be reckoned from the number of
pupils who now " take private music lessons " outside the
school. In the majority of schools at the present time this
group is remarkably large. Proper attention should be
given to this group either in the school program or through
cooperation with instructors now providing private tuition.
In the school itself should be offered for this group at least
courses in musical theory and, as far as may be practicable,
courses in practice, including chorus singing, glee-club work,
orchestra, and applied music both vocal and instrumental.
Such courses should, of course, involve intensive study with
emphasis on technical knowledge, skill, and accomplish-
ment, with a tendency, in some cases pronounced, toward
emphasis on vocational ends.

632 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

290. Courses emphasizing musical appreciation. Many
persons have a distinct interest in and capacity for musical
appreciation without marked interest in or capacity for
musical accomplishment. They do not desire to become
professional performers or even skilled amateurs, though
they do desire to have extended opportunity for musical
appreciation and a theoretical knowledge of music. For
such pupils courses should be provided in chorus singing,
glee-club work, music appreciation, and musical theory.
In such courses technique may be reduced to a minimum
necessary for proper appreciation and the vocational pur-
pose should be eliminated. It should be recognized, how-
ever, that the transition of many pupils from this group to
the group of those who desire to study music for vocational
purposes or with the intention of becoming skilled amateurs
is to be expected.

291. Courses for other pupils. After the two groups of
pupils above mentioned have been provided for there
remains the heterogeneous group of other pupils in the
school whose musical interests and capacities range all the
way from a real or imaginary opposition to music, through
indifference, to a moderate degree of interest in and capacity
for musical appreciation. For this group it should be recog-
nized that musical instruction, in so far as it is at all proper,
must be based on the development of musical appreciation.
In most schools at the present time the only provision made
for this group (as indeed for all groups mentioned) is general
chorus singing. It is probable that for many pupils in this
group, particularly the boys, no surer means could be devised
to create a distaste for musical instruction than the require-
ment of chorus singing. ^Esthetic appreciation, being of
an emotional character primarily, is not readily susceptible
to development under compulsion. This should be frankly
recognized in the organization of courses in music for this

THE AESTHETIC ARTS 633

group of pupils. It is probable that the utilization of me-
chanical musical instruments (player pianos, etc.), together
with performances by skilled musicians, would accomplish
much more to develop some degree of musical appreciation
by many pupils who now openly or silently rebel against the
requirement of participation in chorus singing. This means
that chorus singing should be made elective rather than
required in the secondary school, but that opportunity be
afforded to all pupils to listen to good music.

HI. DESIGN AND RELATED ARTS

292. The field of design and related arts. By design and
related arts are meant here those aesthetic arts which have
to do with the manipulation of materials in space, form, and
color, and represent aesthetic expression in the felicitous
harmony of spacial or color relations. Included under this
head, therefore, are drawing, painting, modeling, the aes-
thetic side of construction in wood, metal, textiles, or other
material, color selection and arrangement in cloth or other
material, and such arrangement of materials or objects as
may be involved in decoration. At the one extreme is found
" art for art's sake " and at the other extreme is found art
almost completely subordinated to the utilitarian demand.
Until recently drawing (occasionally supplemented by
color work) was the sole representative of these arts in the
secondary school. Only with the present tendency to de-
velop applied arts in the direction of industrial and house-
hold arts were conditions created favorable for the interre-
lation of practical and aesthetic arts so that the materials
dealt with might satisfy both utilitarian and aesthetic
demands.

293. Two broad divisions of art instruction. As affecting
instruction in art in the secondary school it is helpful to

634 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

make two broad divisions of the field: (1) art instruction
which concerns itself primarily with the appreciation (and
to a slight extent possibly with the expression) of art not
related to definite utilitarian ends; (2) art instruction which
is definitely and purposely related to practical ends. The
first of these two divisions is designed primarily to develop
an appreciation of beauty in nature and the artificial envi-
ronment, to satisfy the inherent love for the beautiful as
a part of the development of personality, and to enable the
individual to receive the spiritual inheritance of the race as
expressed in art. This means courses in the school designed
primarily to develop in pupils appreciation without refer-
ence to artistic technique beyond the elements requisite for
proper appreciation. In such courses are appropriate only
such principles of space, form, and color harmony, of per-
spective, composition, design, and such artistic ideals as are
suitable for the proper appreciation and enjoyment of art
products by the average individual who will not engage in
activities involving artistic accomplishment. The second
of the two divisions of art instruction is designed definitely
to lead toward some form of artistic production, especially
in relation to industrial, commercial, and household arts.
Some of its more important phases are considered in the
following sections.

294. Design and related arts as related to industrial arts.
Three conceptions emphasize the importance of relating
aesthetic art to the industrial arts: (1) that life may be made
more pleasant and therefore more efficient when ordinary
artificial objects which surround us are agreeable to the
senses and lend favorable emotional tones to daily life; (2)
that aesthetic qualities attached to created objects add actual
commercial values to the industrial product; (3) that the
distinction between craftmanship and workmanship, be-
tween the artisan and the laborer, is largely dependent on

THE AESTHETIC ARTS 635

the presence of the aesthetic element as an impelling factor
in industrial production. Concerning the first and second
of these conceptions little need be said here. Experience in
the home and in the industrial or commercial world have
shown clearly that actual efficiency is increased under more
pleasant surroundings. Experience has also shown that of
two industrial products equal in other respects that which
is more pleasing to the senses will be chosen by the pur-
chaser.

The third conception mentioned above deserves more
extended comment. The development of the factory system
and of standardized production has all but destroyed indi-
vidualism in the character of many industrial products and
has almost eliminated the craftsmanship of earlier days.
Three results are to be noted: (1) the industrial worker lost
a large part of that stimulus and opportunity to contrive,
invent, and create — to express his personality in the results
of his work — which means so much on the side of interest,
pleasure, and ultimately efficiency in labor; (2) industry
lost something which can result only when the worker is
interested in and enjoys his labor; (3) the user of industrial
products lost much which might add to enjoyment in utiliz-
ing the products of industrial labor. Industrial conditions
are not likely to be reversed but rather to go farther in the
direction which they have taken. Nevertheless the infusion
of aesthetic ideals into the industrial arts can do much to
ameliorate existing conditions.

It is, of course, needless to enumerate the more directly
utilitarian applications of the aesthetic arts in industrial
occupations, such as mechanical and architectural drawing,
design and color harmony in textile work, wall-paper, and
the like, or the various applications of art design in metal and
wood work. It needs only to be pointed out that the values
of design and related arts are directly vocational for certain

636 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

vocational groups in the secondary school whose later occu-
pations may be in the field of industry.

295. Design and related arts as related to commercial
arts. As long as the commercial arts in the secondary school
were limited to the clerical arts of bookkeeping, stenogra-
phy, typewriting, and the like, the aesthetic arts could be
considered as having no contact with commercial education
in the school. However, with the growing conception that
commercial education in the secondary school should be
extended to cover salesmanship and other phases of mer-
chandising and store service, a much wider field is opened
up for the application of the aesthetic arts of design and its
relatives. Thus, in practically all commercial enterprises
advertising opens up opportunities for art. In retail stores
window display, interior decoration, and counter display
become effective fields for the union of aesthetic art with
business. Finally, in all stores which deal in clothing and
textiles, furniture, or personal and household furnishings,
elements of color harmony and design become important
to officers, salesmen, and saleswomen. Actual efficiency
of commercial value is here contributed by applied elements
of aesthetic training of boys and girls who join the vast army
of commercial workers and come into direct contact with the
purchaser of articles, no small part of whose value and
appeal arise from aesthetic considerations.

296. Design and related arts as related to domestic arts.
In the expansion of the practical-arts program for girls in
the secondary school a large and important field has been
opened up for applied forms of design and its related arts.
This is, of course, particularly true in connection with those
arts which have to do with the selection of household equip-
ment, even the house itself, the arrangement of household
equipment, its care and service, and in the clothing arts.
The physical environment of the home is one primary

THE ESTHETIC ARTS 637

source of happiness or unhappiness, of good or bad charac-
ter, of good or bad health, of economic efficiency or ineffi-
ciency — we may even say that it is in many cases the bask
of successful or unsuccessful home life. Finally, it is the
environment in which individuals in the earlier part of their
lives must live and from which the first standards of aes-
thetic feeling must come. All these considerations suggest
the importance of a development of aesthetic appreciation
and expression on the part of girls who must later become
home-makers and who will to a large extent determine the
character of the home surroundings and the character of
coming generations.

Of great importance also is the development of aesthetic
appreciation and expression in clothing and dress. Instruc-
tion in costume design and color harmony can do much not
only to affect the enjoyment of life, but also to aid the fam-
ily pocketbook and to offset the absurd dictates of fickle,
sometimes even wasteful or indecent, " fashion." Unless his-
tory reverses itself dress will always play an important part
in the youth and early adult life of the girl and woman (or
boy or man). In meeting the needs of dress the practical,
economical, physiological, moral, and aesthetic combine.
Habits of dress have much to do with the character and life
of the individual. No second Teufelsdrockh is needed to
emphasize the philosophy of women's clothes.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. In any secondary school make a survey designed to ascertain :(a) what
pupils receive or have received musical instruction under private
tuition, with classifications according to length of instruction, number
of lessons per week or month, kind of instrument on which instruction
is received, etc.; (ft) what pupils live in homes where muscial instru-
ments are owned and played; (c) what pupils live in homes where me-
chanical musical instruments are owned; etc.

2. In any secondary school make a survey of the musical compositions,
songs, etc., which are most popular, copies of which are owned, or

638 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

"records" of which are owned in the home. Do not neglect the
"words" side of the songs!

3. In any city ascertain the number of persons whose sole occupation is
music and the number of those who devote a part of their time to
the musical profession for remuneration. (For large cities use the
census returns.)

4. Outline the arguments for and against the requirement of some study
of music by all pupils in the junior high school grades; in the first
year of the four-grade high school.

5. Outline the relative advantages and disadvantages of private instruc-
tion and school instruction in music.

6. Compare the values of private and school instruction in the various
forms of graphic and plastic arts.

7. To what extent can justification be found for the requirement of study
in drawing in the junior high school by all pupils? What objections
could be raised?

8. Discuss the claim that drawing should be made a required study in
the secondary school on the basis of its tool uses as a universal language.

9. What are some of the specific elements of art instruction which may
be considered of importance in the education of secondary-school
girls?

10. Discuss this statement: "The (art) work (in the high school) simplifies
itself, however, into the single purpose of training the pupil to perfect
his apperceptive faculties."

11. Discuss Spencer's theory: "Accomplishments, the fine arts, belles-
lettres, and all those things which, as we say, constitute the efflorescence
of civilization, should be wholly subordinate to that knowledge and
discipline in which civilization rests. As they occupy the leisure part of
life, so should they occupy the leisure part of Education."

12. Discuss Dewey's theory that aesthetic expression precedes aesthetic
appreciation. (Cf. page 590 of Monroe, P., Principles of Secondary
Education.)

SELECTED REFERENCES

I. General:

DeGarmo, C., ^Esthetic Education.

Dewey, J., Dow, A. W., and Farnsworth, C. H., chap, xv of Monroe,
P. (Editor), Principles of Secondary Education.

Judd, C. H., The Psychology of High-School Subjects, chap. xv.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xxn.

Spencer, H., Education, chap, i, pp. 64-79 (Burt edition).
II. Music:

Birge, E. B., "High-School Courses: Appreciation Work," Proceed-
ings of the Music Teachers' National Association (1909), pp. 142 ff.

THE AESTHETIC ARTS 639

Baldwin, R. L. (Chairman), Report of Committee on Public Schools,
Proceedings of the Music 'Teachers' National Association (1908).

Farnsworth, C. H., Education Through Music.

Manchester, A. L., Music Education in the United States Schools and
Departments of Music, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1908)
no. 4.

McConathy, O., "Music in High Schools," Proceedings of the Na-
tional Education Association (1908), pp. 844 jf.

McConathy, O., "High-School Credit for Applied Music taken
under Special Teachers Outside of School," Proceedings of the
National Education Association (1914), p. 634.

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganiza-
tion of Secondary Education, Report of Committee on Music in
Secondary Schools, Bureau of Education Bulletin.

Newton, E. W., Music in the Public Schools.

Woods, G. H., "Instrumental Music and Instrumental Study in
the Oakland Schools," Proceedings of the National Education As-
sociation (1915), pp. 856-68.
III. Design and related arts:

Bailey, H. T., Instruction in the Fine and Manual Arts in the United
States, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1909) no. 6.

Carter, C. M., "Art Education in the High School," pp. 221-42
of Haney, J. P. (Editor), Art Education in the Public Schools of
the United States.

Coffin, W. S., "Art Education for House Furnishing," Proceedings
of the National Education Association (1916), pp. 489-93.

Dow, A. W., Theory and Practice of Teaching Art.

Farnum, R. B., Present Status of Drawing and Art in the Elemen-
tary and Secondary Schools of the United States, Bureau of Edu-
cation, Bulletin (1914) no. 13.

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganiza-
tion of Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Art
Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin.

Cf. also references for Industrial Education, Domestic- Arts Education,
and Manual Training at close of chapter xvn.

CHAPTER XIX

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL
I. PHYSICAL EDUCATION

297. Historical development. The ancient Greeks alone
of all peoples in civilized society adequately recognized the
importance of physical education and made proper provision
therefor. After their time physical training as a formally
organized part of the work of secondary education practi-
cally disappeared from the school until about the beginning
of the nineteenth century. In the Latin grammar school of
the American colonies no provision was made for physical
education nor was any provision made for that phase of
education in the early academies. After the establishment
of the United States Military Academy at West Point in
1802 military training was introducted into many academies
and even into a few public schools. About 1825 German
gymnastics were introduced into some secondary schools,
but that movement soon gave way to the early (Fellenberg)
manual labor movement. The Civil War directed attention
again toward military training but this again was supplanted
by formal gymnastics in the eighties and nineties, gymnasi-
ums were established in high schools, and gymnasium work
remained the principal form of physical training in second-
ary schools until the modern movement toward physical
training through games tended in part to take the place
of formal gymnastics.

298. Present status. Physical education in the secondary
schools of this country at the present time ranges all the
way from the zero point to a very high degree of effective

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 641

provision. Some conception of the situation as it existed in
1910 may be seen from the following table:

TABLE CL. PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN 2392 PUBLIC
HIGH SCHOOLS *

Schools Number Per cent

Having a general department of physical education . 109 4 . 6

Having a teacher in charge of department 104 4.3

Giving regular instruction in hygiene 372 • 15.6

Work in hygiene prescribed 255 10 . 7

Giving credit for work in hygiene 183 7.6

Giving instruction in gymnastics •. . . . 188 7.9

Work in gymnastics prescribed 114 6.0

Giving credit for work in gymnastics 79 3.3

Giving instruction (?) in athletics 232 9.7

Work in athletics prescribed 28 1.2

Giving credit for work in athletics 15 0.6

Giving instruction in swimming 6 0.2

Having medical examination of students 139 5.8

Having sanitary inspection by physician 284 11 .8

Having swimming pools 9 0.3

Having gymnasiums 175 7.3

Having military drill 34 1.4

Having athletic fields 469 19 . 6

Having tennis courts 339 14 . 2

* Compiled and arranged from data given by the Committee on Status of Instruction
in Hygiene in American Educational Institutions, Proceedings of the Fourth Congress of the
American School Hygiene Association, pp. 174-75. Also pp. 453-54, American Physical
Education Review, vol. xv.

While conditions have improved noticeably since 1910,
it remains true that woefully inadequate provisions are made
for physical education in the public secondary schools at the
present day. In the great majority of public secondary
schools little or no provision is made for gymnasiums, no
qualified teacher is employed for physical training or even
for the teaching of hygiene, athletics are supervised and
directed by teachers with few or no qualifications, no ade-
quate machinery is provided for physical examination or
even for medical inspection, and what little physical train-
ing is given is of a formal and perfunctory character. The
common provision, even in some of our best schools, of two

642 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

periods per week in gymnasium exercises, is little more than
a pretence of education.

299. The values of physical education. The values of
physical education in the secondary school are universally
recognized in theory and almost universally ignored in prac-
tice. Vital efficiency must always underlie and condition all
other forms of efficiency — social, economic, and personal.
This fact is readily recognized but its implications are seldom
sufficiently understood. A few salient features may serve to
emphasize those implications.

(1) The annual death-rate for the United States is esti-
mated to be between fifteen and eighteen per thousand of
population. Between one and a half and two per cent of our
total population dies each year and the median age of death
is approximately thirty-eight. It is estimated that approxi-
mately two fifths of those deaths could be postponed by the
application in a reasonable way and to a reasonable extent
of knowledge now available.1

(2) It is estimated that in the United States there are con-
stantly about three million persons on the sick list. The
application of available health knowledge in a reasonable
way and to a reasonable extent could probably reduce this
number by fully one half.1

(3) The economic loss to society each year through deaths
which could have been postponed is probably more than a
billion and a third dollars. The loss of earnings annually on
the score of preventable illness is probably more than a half
billion dollars. When there is added to these figures the cost
of medical care for the sick which might with reasonable
precautions have been avoided, the total annual loss for the
country is estimated at over two billion dollars — over one
hundred dollars for each family in the country.1

1 Based on data collected from several sources by Rapeer, L. W.,
School Health Administration, pp. 17-27.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 643

(4) The physical and mental suffering caused by ill health
and death cannot, of course, be estimated. Its extent may
be judged in part from the figures above presented. The
important fact to be noted is that much of that suffering
might be prevented if proper precautions were taken.

It is obviously true that the prevention of premature
death and of many illnesses must depend on the physician's
skill to a large extent. It is also true, however, that much de-
pends on : (a) the development of a greater degree of resist-
ance to disease through the improvement of bodily health;
(6) the dissemination of available health knowledge and the
development of health habits. Here the responsibility rests
on the school for physical education in hygiene and physi-
ology and for physical training. In both fields the secondary
school must play its part.

300. Factors emphasizing physical education. Physical
education has always had important claims for attention in
the secondary school. However, numerous factors have com-
bined to emphasize its importance at the present time.
Among those factors may be mentioned the following:

(1) The past quarter of a century has seen tremendous
strides taken in the advance of preventive medicine as re-
lated to hygiene and sanitation. Much of that advance con-
sists in the accumulation of relatively simple health knowl-
edges which need but to be known and understood to reduce
greatly illnesses and death or to improve the physical effi-
ciency of the individual and the race. The dissemination of
those health knowledges and the development of habits of
life in accordance therewith is an important function of the
school. Much of this may readily be done in the elementary
school. Much is appropriate to secondary education.

(2) Recent developments in health knowledge have em-
phasized the importance of cooperation in community hy-
giene and sanitation. It is probable that children in the

644 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

elementary school are not mature enough in their social
consciousness to grasp adequately principles and problems
of this phase of physical education and that the major part
of responsibility for it must rest on the secondary school. It
may be noted that this phase of physical education merges
with civic education and in part may be provided for in
connection with community civics.

(3) Changes in American life within recent years have
tended to diminish the stimuli and opportunities for physical
exercise and training. Among the most important factors
here involved may be noted : (a) the tendency toward life in
the city and away from life in the country has served to
lessen the stimuli and opportunities for physical activity
both in work and in play; (6) not many generations ago the
major part of work was done by men and women, boys and
girls. At present the major part of work is done by machin-
ery. The loss in physical activity by the worker has been
great. Even where " hand work " is still important it tends
to be limited to a single series of specialized movements;

(d) within recent years " sedentary " amusements have
tended to supplant amusements involving physical activity
and to be confined to indoor instead of out-of-door amuse-
ments.

(4) In part as a result of certain factors mentioned above,
in part for other reasons, it has been claimed that, while
zymotic diseases have been greatly decreased by develop-
ments in preventive medicine, certain organic diseases and
diseases of the nervous system have greatly increased.1
Here the facts are by no means clear, since it is difficult to
ascertain whether the figures represent a real increase or only
an apparent increase due to improvements in methods of

1 Corwin, R. W., Proceedings of the National Education Association
(1913), pp. 419-20.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 645

diagnosis and increased attention to nervous diseases. The
factor mentioned below may, however, affect the situation.
(5) Through improved methods of preventive and reme-
dial medicine many persons are now preserved to maturity
who previously would have died at an early age. In many
cases they have constitutions which require careful atten-
tion if they are to be protected from disease. The secondary
school must do its share in providing them with physical
education.

301. Three general divisions of physical education. Three
general divisions of physical education may be distinguished
in the secondary school: (1) instruction in physiology and
hygiene; (2) physical training provided as a regular part of
the school work; (3) athletics and play. In making this dis-
tinction it is not intended to imply that work in the various
fields mentioned is or should be entirely dissociated. The
sole purpose in making the distinction is to consider the
special values and aims of the three phases of physical edu-
cation. In the work of the secondary school they should be
as closely associated as possible. The position will be taken
in a later section that athletics and play should be a regular
part of the organized and directed physical training. The
position will also be taken that the effective administration
of physical education can be carried out only when there
exists adequate machinery for medical inspection and
health supervision.

302. Physiology and hygiene: past and present status.
The study of physiology and hygiene in the public schools
had its beginning in the third decade of the nineteenth cen-
tury and its development was rapid after 1850. Its greatest
impetus, however, came as a result of the " temperance "
movement of the last quarter of the nineteenth century. By
the beginning of the present century nearly all States had
made legal provision requiring the teaching of physiology

and hygiene with " special instruction as to the effect of
alcoholic drinks and of stimulants and narcotics on the hu-
man system." Much of that instruction was provided in
the grades of the elementary school, but the.study of phy-
siology and hygiene also had its place in the secondary
school. Data concerning the study of the subject in the pub-
lic high schools from 1895 to 1915 are presented in the fol-
lowing table:

TABLE CLI. PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS ENGAGED m
THE STUDY OF PHYSIOLOGY, 1895-1915*

Year Number Per cent

1895 104,862 29.95

1900 142,401 27.42

1905 : 149,262 21 .96

1910 113,252 15.32

1915 110,541 9.48

* Report, of the Untied States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, p. 487.

On the whole it may be said that up to recent date instruc-
tion in physiology and hygiene both in the elementary school
and in the secondary school has been a conspicuous failure,
though reforms of the past decade give promise of better-
ment. For this failure it is not difficult to find reasons:
(a) the study was inaugurated in the schools as part of a
propaganda and became preaching rather than instruction;
(6) teachers were either apathetic and merely conformed to
the letter of the law or were reformers whose enthusiasm led
to well-meant but ignorant teaching; (c) as far as temper-
ance instruction was concerned much that was taught was
demonstrably false and obviously untrue even in the knowl-
edge of the pupils, while much more was not demonstrably
true; (d) apart from the temperance propaganda the physi-
ology which was taught, especially in the high school, con-
cerned itself with anatomy and scientific classification of
parts and organs of the body rather than with the applica-
tion of hygiene knowledge; (e) textbooks in physiology until

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 647

within recent years were most unsatisfactory, either tending
to exaggeration and falsity when designed as a part of
temperance propaganda or tending toward too much
scientific classification and organization and neglecting
practical hygiene.

Within the past few years and especially in the high school
there has developed a tendency to provide instruction in
physiology and hygiene not only through courses in that
subject proper, but also in connection with biology, general
science, domestic science, and community civics. Further,
textbooks in the subject and methods of teaching have been
adapted to the real ends of instruction in physiology and
hygiene — the imparting of health knowledge and the de-
velopment of health habits which will have practical and
fairly general application in the lives of the pupils.

303. Place of physiology and hygiene in the program.
It must be recognized that instruction in physiology and
hygiene has its legitimate and necessary place in the school.
Some of that instruction is and should be provided in the
elementary school throughout its course (grades one to six).
Before entrance to the junior high school the pupil should
have acquired considerable physiological and hygienical
knowledge. Instruction in those fields should be continued
throughout the junior high school. In the seventh grade
(first grade of the junior high school) that instruction may
well be given as a separate study. In the eighth and ninth
grades (second and third grades of the junior high school)
it may be made a part of the general science courses. In the
ninth grade also it should be related to the course in com-
munity civics. Throughout the junior high school all in-
struction in physiology and hygiene should be conducted
primarily from the viewpoint of its application to the lives
of the pupils and to social needs. The study of physiology
and hygiene as a science has no place in the junior high

648 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

school. As a science physiology and hygiene should be
reserved for study as elective in the senior high school.
Recognition of the phenomena of retardation and elimina-
tion should guard us against the suggestion made by some
that a high-school course in physiology and hygiene (to be
engaged in by all pupils) should be deferred until the pupil
may have studied biology, chemistry and physics.1

304. Direct importance of physiology and hygiene. There
is no possible way of determining exactly the importance of
some knowledge of physiology and hygiene to the second-
ary-school pupil during the school period of his life. A few
facts are worthy of attention, however, in that connection.

(1) In 1914-15 the United States Commissioner of Educa-
tion reports that 585 cities in the country having each a
population of 10,000 or over had a total enrollment of
643,957 high-school pupils with an average daily attendance
of 540,603. 2 So many factors affect attendance or non-
attendance that it is impossible to determine the amount
of absence from high school that is due to illness or to esti-
mate the effect of poor attendance on the pupil's work,
retardation, and sometimes elimination. It is known, how-
ever, that one of the most potent causes of retardation, even
in high-school pupils, is irregular attendance. 3 The amount
of non-attendance due to illness or poor health is greater
than is sometimes thought. This may in part be remedied
by proper health inspection and attention, in part by the
dissemination of health knowledge and the development of
health habits among high-school pupils,

(2) Careful investigation of the physical conditions of

1 Cf . Beny, C. S., p. 357 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School Education.

2 Report of United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, p. 47.

3 Cf. Ayres, L. P., "The Relation Between Physical Defects and School
Progress," Proceedings of the Fourth Congress of the American School Hygiene
Association, pp. 99-105; Rapeer, L. W., School Health Administration,
pp. 31-50.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

649

secondary-school pupils has indicated that more than one
half of the high-school pupils suffer from more or less serious
physical defects.1 While the correction of many of those
defects demands the care of the specialist the health instruc-
tion of the school can at least impress on the pupils the
recognition of their defects and the importance of immediate
attention to their correction.

(3) Children of secondary-school age in alarming numbers
suffer from preventable diseases. Some conception of the im-
portance of this factor may be gained from figures presented
in the following table.2

TABLE CLII. ESTIMATED PREVENTABILITY OF DEATHS OF CHIL-
DREN OF AGES FIFTEEN TO NINETEEN FOR TEN MOST NU-
MEROUS CAUSES OF DEATH IN 1910

Causes of deaths

Total num-
ber of
deaths in
United
State*

Per cent
preventable

Number
preventable

Pulmonary tuberculosis

8650

6487

4230

Typhoid fever ..

2830

2405

Heart disease, organic

1940

485

Pneumonia

1920

864

Tuberculosis other parts

1750

1177

1270

635

Bright's disease

740

286

550

Meningitis .. ..

500

350

These and other considerations render imperative and
effective program of health instruction, inspection, and care
in the secondary school.

1 Small, W. S., pp. 500-03 of Rapeer, L. W. (Editor), Educational Hygiene.

2 Arranged from data given by Rapeer, L. W., School Health Administra-
tion, p. 17. Cf. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
Mortality Statistics (1911).

650 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

305. Sex hygiene and sex pedagogy. Modern civilization
is in many points in direct conflict with nature; nowhere is
it in greater conflict than in matters related to sex. Modern
conventions and the conditions of modern life make neces-
sary and desirable the postponement of marriage until a date
considerably later than the development of strong sex in-
stincts and the maturity of physiological functions related
to sex. Sex maturity begins to appear during the period of
secondary education, and the development of sex instincts
during that period is as inevitable as the daily rising of the
sun. Sex indulgence, normal and perverted, among second-
ary-school pupils is by no means the rare exception that trust-
ing and optimistic school authorities would believe. For
every case that becomes known there are many cases which
remain undiscovered.

The importance of measures which may help to diminish
the ravages of venereal diseases in society need not here be
rehearsed. The prevalence of such diseases and their effects
have been discussed ad nauseam in modern literature, both
scientific and unscientific. The problems of education in this
connection are not those of need, but rather of ways and
means. According to Crampton: l

The problem resolves itself into two parts:

1st. Shall instruction in sex hygiene be given in the schools?

2d. When, how, and by whom shall it be given?

The situation is bristling with difficulties. It may be questioned
whether knowledge is more protective than ignorance, and the
answer may be that knowledge from a worthy source is better than
that which comes from vicious companions.

It may be firmly held that this instruction should come from the
father and mother, the physician or other sources; to this the
reply must be given that these sources are ineffective, for the
situation still demands a remedy.

1 Crampton, C. W., "The Teaching of Hygiene," Proceedings of the
Fourth Congress of the American School Hygiene Association, pp. 137-42.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 651

It is a question whether this instruction should begin before or
after puberty, in the elementary school or the high school.1
Whether it should be taught in the department of biology, hygiene,
physical training, or in an entirely separate department, is still to
be determined.

The advantages of the lecture method as against the individual
conference, the systematic as against the occasional presentation,
are all to be considered.

Whatever course may be followed it is safe to say that it should
be based upon the relation of the sex hygiene to health, rather than
its relation to ethics or religion.

The answer to the first problem raised by Crampton
should be unqualifiably affirmative. Education in sex hy-
giene must be given in the schools. The legitimate place for
that education is at the point where it has its greatest appli-
cation, namely, when the sex instincts begin to mature.
The school is the only agency which society may systemati-
cally control for purposes of this education.

To the second problem raised by Crampton no final answer
can be given on the basis of available knowledge. Much may
be done in the departments of biology, physiology, hygiene,
physical training, and civics. Much may also be done in
the administration of the school activities, particularly in
connection with the extra-curriculum activities, social and
athletic. Crampton quotes Governor Whitman (formerly
District Attorney for New York City) to the effect

that athletics have done and would do more to wipe out the
"white slave" traffic than the passage of any or all of the legisla-
tion now pending in Washington or Albany.2

306. Past and present status of physical training. In the
American secondary school physical training through bodily

1 The organization of the six-three-three school system affects this
problem.

2 Crampton, C. W., "The Teaching of Hygiene," Proceedings of the
Fourth Congress of the American School Hygiene Association, p. 141.

652 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

activity has at various times and to varying extent followed
four principal lines of development: (1) military drill; (2)
" manual labor " and " manual training "; (3) formal gym-
nastic exercises; (4) athletic exercises and games. Military
drill was found in some of the Latin grammar schools. Mili-
tary or semi-military academies and private schools have
been more or less prominent from the beginning of the
nineteenth century. The Civil War, the Spanish War, and
the present World War, each gave at least temporary impe-
tus to military training both in private and public secondary
schools. The early manual labor movement laid emphasis
on " practical " physical activity and the element of physical
training was emphasized in the manual training movement
of the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Formal
gymnastics found a place in the secondary school of the
second quarter of the nineteenth century for a short time
and were prominent periodically until they secured a firm
position in the schools in the last quarter of the nineteenth
century. Athletics and games developed extensively but in-
formally during the last quarter of the nineteenth century.
Their incorporation into the secondary school as an integral
part of its work and their extensive substitution for formal
gymnastic exercises have been developments of recent years.

In Table CLI some incomplete data were presented con-
cerning physical training in the secondary schools. They
show that the problem of physical training through exercise
as yet has not been adequately recognized, much less solved.

307. Values and aims of physical training. In general
the values and aims of physical training through motor activ-
ity are per se the values and aims of all physical education.
In particular physical training through motor activity aims
to improve bodily health and efficiency by giving exercise
to those parts of the body which fundamentally condition
health and vigor, by developing muscular and neural coor-

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 653

dination, by establishing habits of healthful exercise, and, in
some cases, by correcting certain physical defects. Physical
training through motor activity as such concerns bodily
health and efficiency alone. However, the greatest error in
physical training instruction in the past has been the tend-
ency (common, e.g., in formal calisthenics and gymnastics)
to isolate that phase of education both from instruction in
hygiene and also from the mental, social, and moral education
with which it should be associated. The result was a form
of physical education highly artificial, lacking in attraction
to the pupil, and in the majority of schools very ineffective.
On the other hand, when the course in physical training is
properly combined with other phases of education, espe-
cially as the combination is found in games and athletics,
few courses in the secondary school can compete with physi-
cal training as an educative force at once physical, social,
and moral, and few courses can so readily stimulate the inter-
est and endeavor of the pupils. This point is considered at
greater length in following sections.

308. Gymnastics in the program. In the German higher
schools formal gymnastics are judged to be a conspicu-
ous success. In the American secondary school they can-
not be considered otherwise than as a conspicuous failure.
That failure has been due in part to the fact that very in-
adequate provision was made in many schools and that
teachers are not well trained for such instruction. More
important, however, at least as far as the future is con-
cerned, are the objections which may be raised against re-
liance on formal gymnastics as the sole or principal means
of physical training: (1) they are highly artificial and do not ^
correspond closely to the normal motor activities in life;

(2) they are purely mechanical and lack mental content; )

(3) they frequently arouse a distaste rather than a liking for v
physical exercise; (4) except for a few individuals they fail ^

654 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

to arouse permanent interests or develop self-sustaining
habits; (5) they ignore or minimize the recreation element;
(6) they lack the social and moral elements which are prom-
inent in athletics and games; (7) as commonly taught to
large groups they tend to ignore individual differences in
physical endowment, acquirements, and needs.

All these objections may be raised against formal gym-
nastics as the sole or principal means of physical training.
As a part of the program for physical training they have a
legitimate place, possessing as they do, certain advantages
which may not be found in athletics and games. Among
those advantages may be mentioned the following: (a) prop-
erly administered gymnastics may be made an effective
means of corrective training for individuals or selected
groups of pupils; (6) their artificial character permits the
selection of those exercises and only those exercises for
psychomotor activity which make positive contributions
to specific ends in physical training; (c) they may be made to
combine certain aesthetic elements with physical training;

(d) they may be made to include disciplinary elements;

(e) they leave no room for the evils which always threaten
athletics and games; (/) they permit organization into sys-
tematically graduated exercises which may readily be
adapted to the demands of physiological development on
the part of pupils.

309. Athletics, dancing, and games. While formally
organized and officially administered physical training was
struggling for a place in the work of the secondary school
during the later part of the nineteenth century there was
rapidly developing an extensive amount of informally organ-
ized and unofficially directed physical training through
athletics and games in connection with the secondary
schools. At first opposed by many school authorities, later
accepted as a necessary evil, athletics and games have fin-

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 655

ally been welcomed at least as desirable auxiliaries to physi-
cal training. At present there is evidence that the stone
which the builders rejected may become the head of the
corner. One of the immediate needs of physical training
in the secondary school is the harnessing up for effective
training of those forms of physical activity which in ath-
letics, dancing, and games so vitally hold the interest and
provoke the endeavor of pupils.

Properly organized and administered athletics, dancing,
and games offer opportunities for the development of a pro-
gram of physical training and its coordination with other
forms of education which no program of formal gymnastics
can hope to accomplish. Reasons for this may be seen from
the following considerations.

(1) For the normal secondary-school pupil physical
training through athletics and games provides opportunity
for motor activity which meets every aim of physical train-
ing as such much better than any form of artificial training.
The movements of the body in athletics, dancing, and games
are natural movements and have at least a temporarily
definite purpose obvious to the pupil. In addition such
exercises engage every important organ and part of the body
and to a considerable extent they are carried on in the open
air instead of in an enclosed, sometimes unhygienic, gym-
nasium.

(2) Athletics, dancing, and games, to a degree not par-
alleled by any other school exercise, unite phases of physical,
mental, social, and moral education. In the majority of
school studies social and moral principles are read about
and talked about. In athletics and games they are learned
through actual practice and by actual participation in the
activities which call for their manifestation.

(3) In the greater part of secondary-school work the
school must develop interests and endeavor. Athletics and

656 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

games have developed among the pupils to a certain degree
spontaneously and through their native interests. Nowhere
in the program of school work do we find such a firm basis
of established interest.

(4) Physical training through athletics, dancing, and
games offers an opportunity for the establishment of per-
manent health and recreation interests and habits. It thus
becomes not merely a temporary expedient but an abiding
instrument for health and pleasure.

(5) Educators are but beginning to recognize the impor-
tant part held by play. Formal gymnastics ignores its impor-
tance. Athletics, dancing, and games make play the very
basis of their appeal and value.

(6) Formal gymnastics as the principal means of physi-
cal training readily allows the subordination of educational
needs to administrative exigencies. The organization of
physical training on the basis of athletics and games forces
the subordination of administrative exigencies to the real
needs of physical training.

310. Some dangers in such organization. In the organiza-
tion of physical training on the primary basis of athletics
and games certain dangers must be guarded against.

(1) Properly organized and administered athletics and
games may be made the basis of very effective social and
moral education. Improperly organized and improperly ad-
ministered they may become the means of harmful results
in social and moral education. The price of gain is always
the possibility of loss. The more effective an instrument is
when properly employed the more dangerous it is likely to
be when misapplied or carelessly used.

(2) A program of physical training through athletics and
games must be prepared with great care. For girls in par-
ticular athletics and games in the secondary school where
girls are in the pubescent or adolescent stages must be

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 657

organized with attention to their physical needs and con-
ditions.

(3) A program of physical training based on athletics and
games as the primary element presupposes proper pro-
vision for physical examination and care. In this connec-
tion it should be noted that physical training of any kind
cannot be effective and may be actually harmful unless an
effective program of health administration is established.

(4) Attempts to harness athletics and games to the regu-
lar work of the secondary school may easily result in the
destruction of those spontaneous interests, enthusiasms, and
endeavors which have made them such effective instru-
ments for physical training (and for other forms of educa-
tion) in the past when they were left more or less to the
control of the pupils. In the organization of athletics
as an integral part of the work of the secondary school,
unless those spontaneous interests of the pupils can be
preserved, there is danger that many of the advantages of
athletics and games as forms of physical training may be
lost.

(5) Closely related to the above is the problem of com-
petitive interscholastic athletics. Many evils have un-
doubtedly developed around interscholastic contests and
for that reason considerable opposition has been raised to
their continuance. It should be noted, however, that inter-
scholastic contests have been the principal factor contribut-
ing to the development of secondary-school athletics. No
greater error could be made than to destroy the pupils' inter-
est and cooperation in physical training through athletics
and games by eliminating interscholastic contests.

311. Military training and physical training. The pres-
ence or imminence of war has always led to the considera-
tion of military training as a part of the work of the second-
ary school. The predominant purpose of military training

658 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

is social and moral. Nevertheless it is to some extent re-
lated to physical training and is sometimes made a substi-
tute for other forms of physical training. For convenience
it may be considered in the present connection.

As a principal or sole means of physical training military
training is unsatisfactory for the following reasons: (1) it is
almost totally unsuitable for girls; (2) except as it includes
forms of physical training not peculiar to military training
it is limited in its scope for that purpose; (3) it cannot be
required of all boys in the secondary school; (4) it does not
capitalize the powerful instincts and interests of play and
competition as do athletics and games; (5) its primary
and fundamental aim is not physical, but social and moral,
and those aims should dominate its instruction.

As a subsidiary means of physical education and as a
means of social-moral education military training has legiti-
mate claims for attention in the secondary school. Optimis-
tic belief in the ultimate brotherhood of man and confidence
in the ultimate elimination of militarism and war should not
blind us to the fact that at present preparation for the social-
civic duties of life includes preparation for the defense of
our lives and of our institutions. This can never be wholly
intellectual and emotional. It must also involve the physi-
cal. In military training, therefore, some opportunity is
afforded for this necessary factor through the combination
of social, moral, and physical elements which must be in-
volved in adequate preparation for civic education.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. In any secondary school make an investigation of the illnesses of pupils
and absences due to illness.

2. In any secondary school investigate the amount and character of
physical exercise engaged in by pupils for any given period.

8. Compare the systems of physical education in German, English, and
American secondary schools.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 659

4. Trace the development of gymnastics in the American secondary
school.

5. Trace the development of athletics hi the American secondary school.

6. Trace the development of military training in the American secondary
school.

7. Trace the development of instruction in physiology and hygiene in the
American secondary school.

8. Analyze the arguments for and against the separate and direct teaching
of sex hygiene in the public secondary school.

9. Analyze the arguments for and against military training for boys in
the public secondary school.

10. Analyze the evils of secondary school athletics. How may they be
remedied?

11. Select one group of pupils from the highest quarter of any secondary-
school class (as measured by school grades) and another group of pupils
from the lowest quarter of the same class. Compare the amount of
illness and absence because of illness in both groups.

12. Compare the grades received by pupils who have engaged in athletics
and those received by pupils who have engaged in no athletics in any
one year.

SELECTED REFERENCES
I. General:

Dutton, S. T., and Sne'dden, D., The Administration of Public Educa-
tion in the United States, chap. xxm.

Fisher, I., National Vitality: Its Waste and Conservation, Report of
the National Conservation Commission, vol. in, pp. 620-751.

Gulick, L. H., Report of the Committee on the Status of Physical Edu-
cation in Public Normal Schools and Public High Schools in the
United States, American Physical Education Review, vol. xv,
pp. 453-54. Also in Proceedings of the Fourth Congress of the
American School Hygiene Association, pp. 174-75.

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganiza-
tion of Secondary Education, Report of Committee on Physical
Education in Secondary Schools, Bureau of Education Bulletin.

New York State, General Plan and Syllabus for Physical Training
in the Elementary and Secondary Schools.

American Physical Education Review.

Rapeer, L. W., School Health Administration, especially pp. 17-53.

Rapeer, L. W. (Editor), Educational Hygiene, especially chaps. I,

XXIII, XXVI.

Sargent, D., Physical Education.

Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xxiv.
Wood, T. D., "Health and Education," Ninth Yearbook of the Na-
tional Society for the Study of Education, part I.

660 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

II. Physiology and hygiene:

Berry, C. S., chap, xix of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High-School
Education.

Cabot, R. C., "The Teaching of Hygiene," American Physical Edu-
cation Review, vol. xiv, pp. 352-58.

Crampton, C. W., "The Teaching of Hygiene," Proceedings of the
Fourth Congress of the American School Hygiene Association,
pp. 137-42.

Henderson, C. R., " Education with Reference to Sex," Eighth Year-
book of the National Society for the Study of Education, parts i and n.

Lloyd, F. E., and Bigelow, M. A., The Teaching of Biology in the
Secondary Schools.

Small, W. S., "Health Teaching in the High School," chap, xxvi of
Rapeer, L. W. (Editor), Educational Hygiene.

Storey, T. A., "The Relation of School Hygiene to Physical Educa-
tion," American Physical Education Review, vol. xiv, pp. 529-36.

Wile, I. S., " Sex Hygiene and Sex Education," chap, xxix of Rapeer,
L. W. (Editor), Educational Hygiene.

III. Athletics, dancing and games:

Curtis, H. S., Education through Play, especially chaps, i-vi, x, xi.

Dudley, G., and Kellor, F., Athletic Games in theEducation of Women.

Pauver, E., "Physical Education and Athletics in the High School,"
chap, xxin of Rapeer, L. W., Educational Hygiene.

Hetherington, C. W., "Athletics," chap, xix of Monroe, P. (Editor),
Principles of Secondary Education.

Johnson, G. E., Education by Plays and Games.

Kindervater, A. E., "German Gymnastics Adapted to American
High School Conditions," Proceedings of the Fourth Congress of the
American School Hygiene Association, pp. 47-56.

Lee, J., Play in Education.

Naismith, J., "High-School Athletics and Gymnastics," chap, xvii
of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), The Modern High School.

Nichols, E. H., "Competitive Athletics," American Physical Educa-
tion Review, vol. xiv, pp. 589 ff.

Playground Association of America, Report of Committee on Athletics
for Boys and Athletics for Girls.

Sargent, D. A., Physical Education, chap. vm.

IV. Military training:

Ayres, L. P., "Military Drill in High Schools," School Review,

vol. xxv, pp. 157-60.
Bliss, D. C., "Military Training in the High School," School Review,

vol. xxv, pp. 161-67.
Massachusetts Commission on Military Education, Report, School

Review, vol. xxv, pp. 168-76.
National Education Association, Report of Committee on Military

PHYSICAL EDUCATION 661

Training, "Military Training in the Schools and Colleges,"

Educational Review, vol. LIV, pp. 54-72. Also, Proceedings (1917),

pp. 1006-18.

New York State Laws (1916), chap. 566.
Sargent, D. A., Physical Education, chap. ix.
Small, W. S., "Military Training in the High School: Why and

How?" Proceedings of the National Education Association (1916),

pp. 570-74.
Steever, E. Z., "The Wyoming Plan of Military Training for the

School," School Review, vol. xxv, pp. 145-50.

Extended bibliographies: McCurdy, J. H., Bibliography of Physical
Training; Bibliography of Medical Inspection and Health Super-
vision, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1913), no. 16; Indices of
volumes of the American Physical Educational Review; Burgess,
W. R., Cummings, H. B. Tomlinson, W. P., "Military Train-
ing in the Public Schools, An Annotated Bibliography," Teachers
College Record, vol. xvra, pp. 141-60.

CHAPTER XX

THE ORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION:
CURRICULUMS

I. HISTORICAL AND COMPARATIVE

312. Historical development of curriculums. The Latin
grammar school of the American colonies, as elsewhere,
provided a single inflexible curriculum for all pupils — a
narrowly classical curriculum designed to prepare boys for
college. No departure from that plan was made until the
time of the academy with its introduction not only of
different subjects of study but also of differentiated cur-
riculums. Thus in the academy established by ' Franklin
provision was made for a Latin school, an English school,
and a mathematical school, to which was added later a
philosophical school. Thus also we find a Classical Depart-
ment and an English Department in the Phillips Academy
at Andover in 1818. At least to the extent of somewhat
separate classical and English departments and sometimes
separate departments or schools for boys and girls, curricu-
lum differentiation became common in the academy at a
relatively early date.

At the beginning of the high-school movement the tend-
ency toward differentiation was manifested not by offering
different curriculums in the same school but by establishing
separate schools for different groups of pupils. Thus we
find the secondary-school system of Boston, which up to
1821 had consisted of the Public Latin School alone, en-
larged by the establishment of the English Classical (High)
School in that year and by the establishment of the Girls'

CURRICULUMS 663

High School in 1826. A few other cities followed this plan.
The high-school law of 1827 in Massachusetts tended to
check the practice of establishing separate secondary schools
for different groups of pupils and tended to establish public
high schools in which somewhat differentiated curriculums
were provided. The practice of providing separate curricu-
lums or departments within the same school has been the
usual practice almost from the beginning of the high-school
movement. It is to be noted that the bases of differentiated
curriculums, until well toward the close of the nineteenth
century, were (1) separate courses for those going to college
and those not going to college; (2) separate courses for boys
and for girls, especially during the earlier period; and (3)
toward the close of the century somewhat differentiated
courses for pupils preparing for varying forms of higher
education.

During the last quarter of the nineteenth century a num-
ber of factors combined to foster greater differentiation than
had previously obtained in the organization of curriculums :
(1) the increased differentiation in college admission re-
quirements; (2) the increasing strength of demands for the
recognition of newly developed subjects of study; (3) the ex-
tension of the patronage of the public high school and the
influx of pupils with different interests, capacities, and prob-
able future needs; (4) the demands of vocational education
and practical-arts education, especially as related to man-
ual, technical, and commercial training; (5) increasing rec-
ognition of the principle of " selection." These and other
factors as early as 1890 caused such a lack of uniformity and
so much variation in secondary education that a committee
was appointed by the National Council of Education to
render a report on the general subject of uniformity in
school programs and in requirements for admission to col-
lege. As a consequence of the report presented by that com-

664 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

mittee in 1891 the National Education Association ap-
pointed a committee to continue the study of the matter in
1892. That committee (the Committee of Ten on Secondary
School Studies) rendered a report in 1893 which practically
dominated the curriculums of American secondary educa-
tion for more than a decade and whose influence has not yet
entirely ceased. The diversity of subject which had devel-
oped in the secondary school in 1893 may be seen from the
fact " that the total number of subjects taught in the sec-
ondary schools was nearly forty, thirteen of which, however,
were found in only a few schools."

313. Curriculums recommended by the Committee of
Ten. The most important result of the work of the Com-
mittee of Ten was the formulation of four curriculums which
were recommended as models for the work of the secondary
school. Those curriculums were based on the list of sub-
jects " which the Conferences deal with as proper for sec-
ondary schools." 1

They are: 1. languages — 'Latin, Greek, English, German, and
French, (and locally Spanish) ; 2. mathematics — algebra, geometry,
and trigonometry; 3. general history, and the intensive study of
special epochs; 4. natural history — including descriptive astron-
omy, meteorology, botany, zoology, physiology, geology, and eth-
nology, most of which subjects may be conveniently grouped under
the title of physical geography; and 5. physics and chemistry. The
Committee of Ten assent to this list, both for what it includes and
for what it excludes, with some practical qualifications to be
mentioned.

On the basis of this list of subjects the committee sug-
gested four curriculums — the Classical Course, the Latin-
Scientific Course, the Modern Languages Course, and the
English Course. For a complete view of the curriculums rec-

1 Report of the Committee on Secondary School Studies, pp. 36-37 (Bu-
reau of Education edition). ,

CURRICULUMS

665

ommended the reader must be referred to the report of the
committee. Some conception of the relative importance at-
tached by the committee to the various fields of study may
be gained from the figures presented in the folio whig table:

TABLE CLUE. CURRICULUMS RECOMMENDED BY THE COMMITTEE
OF TEN IN 1893. PERCENTAGES OF TOTAL TIME DEVOTED TO
SUBJECT GROUPS*

Subject groups

Curriculum*

Classical
(per cent)

Latin-scientific
(per cent)

Modern
Languages
(per cent)

English
(per cent)

English

13.75
48.75
13.75-17.50
11.25
12.50- 8.75

16.25
36.25
13.75-17.50
22.50
11.25- 7.50

Not specifically
Not specifically
Not specifically

16.25
36.25
13.75-17.50
22.50
11.25- 7.50
provided
provided
provided

21.25-20.00
21.25-22.50
17.50
22.50
17.50

Foreign language. . . .
Mathematics

Natural Science. .

Social Science

Fine Arts

Vocational subjects. .
Physical education . .

* Compiled from Report of the Committee on Secondary School Studies, pp. 46-47 (Bureau
of Education edition).

314. Criticism of the committee's recommendations. In
the light of present knowledge, theory, and practice it is
obvious that the recommendations of the Committee of
Ten are open to serious criticism. Without attempting a
complete analysis of the recommendations we may note
the following serious objections: (1) the almost complete
failure to recognize the practical and vocational arts sub-
jects; (2) the obvious dominance of the college-admission
function; (3) the differentiation of curriculums on the basis
of predominant subjects rather than on the basis of the
activities of life to which pupils will apply their training;
(4) the over-emphasis on the study of foreign language (re-
quired of all pupils and demanding from more than one fifth

666 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

to nearly one half of all the time devoted to formal school
work) ; (5) the failure to provide for those pupils who must
leave school before the secondary-school course can be com-
pleted; (6) the relatively small amount of flexibility afforded;
(7) the failure in other ways to provide curriculums well
suited to the demands of individual differences.

In spite of all these defects the report of the committee
did much to aid secondary education in the United States
through the introduction of valuable standardizing agencies
at a time when they were sorely needed. Ultimately, how-
ever, the curriculums proposed could not meet the demands
of secondary education. The theory and practice of the
past decade or more have tended to correct the obvious
defects in the plans recommended by the Committee of Ten.
The principles involved in the present tendency toward
reorganization in curriculums are best considered analyti-
cally rather than historically and descriptively. They are
considered in later sections of this chapter.

315. Suggestions from foreign practice. In Chapter VI
an attempt was made to outline briefly the organization
of curriculums in Germany, France, and England. Further
consideration is here pertinent only to point out some special
features which may be suggested for American practice.

(1) Secondary education in most foreign countries begins
at an earlier age and stage than in the United States, com-
monly beginning at an age between nine and twelve and at
a stage corresponding to a point between the fifth and
seventh grades of the American school system. Differences
in social organization and aims, in educational theory and
functions, in a multitude of other factors, make it difficult,
or even dangerous, to draw applications to American prac-
tice from practices in other countries. Nevertheless consid-
eration of foreign practice suggests that in the organization
of secondary education, and therefore of secondary-school

CURRICULUMS 667

curriculums, we may safely consider at least two grades be-
low the four grades now commonly considered.

(2) Vocational and practical arts education have devel-
oped far more rapidly and successfully in some European
countries than in America. While it is true that vocational
curriculums have developed in European countries apart
from other forms of secondary education and in separate
schools it is nevertheless true that greater provision has
been made for vocational education abroad and that we may
learn much from their practice.

(3) In most foreign schools more work is required of
pupils than in the American secondary school. It is not
improbable that in the organization of the curriculums more
study than is required at present could be expected.

II. PRINCIPLES DETERMINING THE ORGANIZATION OF
CURRICULUMS

Practically every factor and principle discussed in the
preceding chapters of this book in some degree affects the
determination of secondary-school curriculums. Some are
so vitally involved that they deserve special attention here.

316. The aims and functions of secondary education.
In Chapter X it was pointed out that every individual is
destined to participate in three general forms of activity,
and accordingly that secondary education has three funda-
mental aims: (1) the social-civic aim, involving the prepa-
ration of the individual as a prospective citizen and cooperat-
ing member of society; (2) the economic- vocational aim,
involving the preparation of the individual as a prospective
worker and producer; and (3) the individualistic-a voca-
tional aim, involving the preparation of the individual for
participation in those activities of life which primarily con-
cern the proper use of leisure and the development of per-

J68 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

sonality apart from distinctly constructive social ends.
Since every individual is at once a citizen, a worker, and a
relatively independent personality, and since those three
phases of his activity cannot be divorced, it follows that a
fundamental principle in the organization of curriculums is
the conception that each of the three aims mentioned must
be recognized in due proportion and that no curriculum
which ignores or minimizes any one of those aims can be
acceptable. Two facts should be noted, however, (a) it
cannot be assumed that studies in the secondary-school pro-
gram can be distributed entirely according to the three aims
suggested; e.g., English may well contribute to all three
aims: (6) for some groups of pupils, e.g., those postponing
direct vocational training until the period of higher educa-
tion, vocational education in the secondary school must be
conceived as indirect and propaedeutic.

It was also pointed out in Chapter X that secondary edu-
cation has certain " functions " or general lines of activity
which it must follow if the aims above mentioned are to be
attained. These functions have very important bearing on
the determination of the curriculums.

( 1 ) The adjustive function of secondary education demands
that provision be made in the curriculums for media of
training which involve fundamental principles, skills, etc.,
and suggests the limitations of curricula which involve only
training for temporary present conditions.

(2} The integrating function of secondary education is one
of the most important factors determining the establish-
ment of essentially identical elements which should form
a part of every curriculum. It is one of the basic principles
suggesting the presence of certain subjects (especially
English and social science) in every curriculum.

(3) The differentiating function is the basis on which rest
different curriculums for different groups of pupils, varying

CURRICULUMS 669

elements entering into every curriculum to meet the needs
of different capacities and aptitudes of different pupils
engaged in that curriculum, and in general the adaptation
of curriculums to individual differences among pupils and
the differentiated needs of society.

(4) The propaedeutic function demands recognition of the
fact that certain forms of education are necessary for the
successful participation in other forms of education which
depend on them. Its special importance is found, of course,
in connection with curriculums for secondary-school pupils
destined to continue their formal education in higher insti-
tutions.

(5) The selective function emphasizes two important facts
in connection with the organization of curriculums: (a) it
suggests recognition of the fact that it should operate by
differentiation rather than by elimination; (6) it demands
recognition of the fact that the bases for curriculums vary
noticeably in different grades of the school. Thus Table
LXVIII indicates that pupils destined to go to some higher
institution after the high school constitute one sixth of the
entire first -year class, one quarter of the second-year class,
one third of the third-year class, and one half of the fourth-
year class.

(6) The diagnostic function demands recognition of the
fact that in the organization of curriculums an attempt
should be made to bring pupils into contact with a relatively
wide range of subject-matter to the end that they may more
intelligently and more effectively determine their own needs,
interests, and capacities. It is, for instance, one reason for
the introduction of "general" or "elementary" science in
an early grade, and, possibly, for diagnostic "short-unit"
courses in the junior high school.

317. Principles arising from pupils' development. In
Chapters I and II an attempt was made to analyze factors

C70 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

involved in the physical and psychological development of
pupils and their bearing on secondary education. Certain
deductions were drawn, some of which have important
bearing on the determination of secondary-school curricu-
lums. Of particular importance is the principle that the
development of the pupil is essentially gradual and con-
tinuous without sudden and abrupt changes at any one
point to justify radical changes in the curriculums. This
principle suggests that in the organization of curriculums
provision should be made for gradual transition from
grade, with special reference to the transition from one
division of the system to another. In this connection atten-
tion may be called to the following elements involved:

(1) provision for close articulation between the last grades
of the elementary school and the first grades of the high
school and between the junior and senior high schools;

(2) provision for the somewhat gradual introduction of
" elective " subjects and the gradual expansion of the area
of variable elements in the curriculums; (3) provision for
the gradual introduction of "departmental " work; (4) pro-
vision for the gradual introduction of new subjects; (5)
provision for the close correlation of subjects.

A second principle arising from the nature of the develop-
ment of pupils is that the introduction of subjects is in a
general way only related to the age of the pupils and that
there is no justification in the theory which postulates that
certain ages are especially suited to different subjects. For
example, there is no established justification for the belief
that subjects requiring a great amount of memorization
should be introduced relatively early nor that subjects call-
ing for logical reasoning should be delayed in their introduc-
tion. On the other hand the manner in which subjects are
presented is very seriously affected by the stage of progress
of the pupils. The factors which determine the appropriate

CURRICULUMS 671

times for the introduction of subject-matter are (a) the pre-
vious experiences and training of the pupils, and (6) social
factors determining the use of education afforded. It is
needless to say that the organization of materials and the
methods of teaching must vary widely according to the
grades in which the subjects are introduced.

318. Principles arising from individual differences. In
Chapter III an attempt was made to point out the factors
iri volved in the distribution of individual differences among
secondary-school pupils. It was there shown that pupils
differ widely in native capacities, acquired abilities, native
and acquired interests, environmental conditions, and prob-
able future activities. Recognition of this factor is the basis
not only of differentiated curriculums but of greater or less
variation within the limits of any one curriculum. Curric-
ulum differentiation is determined primarily by the prob-
able future activities of pupils, especially along vocational
lines. Differentiation within any curriculum must be pro-
vided in order to meet still further the demands of individ-
ual differences in capacities, interests, and aptitudes.

On the principle that individual differences must be met
as far as may be possible rest all the variable elements in the
secondary school — curriculum " election," subject " elec-
tion," promotion by subjects rather than by grades, pro-
vision for educational diagnosis, exploration, etc., provision
for educational guidance (including vocational, social,
moral, and avocational guidance), provision for economy
of time in education, etc.

319. The distribution and classification of pupils. In
Chapter IV it was shown that of pupils who enter the first
grade of the four-year high school at \he present time about
one third leave before the beginning p| the second grade,
about one half are gone before the beginning of the third
grade, about two thirds are gone before the beginning of the

672 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

fourth year, and less than one third are graduated. Of those
pupils who enter the seventh grade of the elementary school
little more than one half reach the first grade of the high
school, two thirds are gone by the beginning of the second
year, about three quarters have left by the beginning of the
third year, and few more than one fifth are left in the last
grade of the high school. However conditions for the reten-
tion of pupils may be improved in the future, it must be
recognized that the factor of elimination vitally affects the
organization of curriculums in two important respects: (a)
provision must be made by the organization of flexible
curriculums, the introduction of varied forms of education,
and the proper administration of the diagnostic function,
which will encourage continuance in the secondary school
longer of pupils who now leave school in large numbers; (6)
provision must be made for an education as effective as
possible, as appropriate as possible, and as well rounded-out
as possible for pupils who must leave school before the
completion of the course.

In Chapter IV also an attempt was made to classify pupils
according to their probable stay in the secondary school and
according to the character of the future activities of different
groups. In Table LXVIII figures were presented showing for
the country at large the proportions of pupils in the various
! grades belonging to different groups, classified according to
their probable stay in the school. If the classification there
made be accepted it follows that the following general groups
of pupils must be considered in the organization of secondary
school curriculums:

1. Those who will continue their education beyond the second-
ary school in some higher institution. This group is composed
of those who will enter the "higher" professions and whose
direct vocational education will be provided in the higher
institutions. Under existing conditions this group consti-

CURRICULUMS 673

tutes approximately one sixth of pupils in the first grade of
the four-year high school, about one quarter of those in the
second grade, about one third of those in the third grade and
about one half of those in the fourth grade. It constitutes
about one eleventh of those in the seventh grade of the present
elementary school.

2. Those who will complete the secondary school course but
close their formal education at that point. Boys and girls
belonging to this group will or should enter relatively high
grade occupations and should be provided preparation for
those occupations in the secondary school. Their stay
throughout the full school course permits well-developed
curriculums which should be definitely directed toward the
attainment of rather highly developed knowledge or skill
related to some occupation, a well organized body of asso-
ciated occupational knowledges and skills, toward the attain-
ment of a satisfactory social-civic, and toward the develop-
ment of worthy means of enjoying leisure. This group is of
proportions in various grades of the school system approxi-
mately the same as were true of the previous group. Pupils
graduated from the secondary school are about equally
divided between those continuing and those not continuing
their formal education.

3. Those who remain in school until the close of the eleventh
grade but who leave school at that point. Pupils belonging
to this group will for the most part engage in occupations
involving knowledges and skills appropriate to agricultural,
industrial, commercial, or domestic activities. The group
constitutes (under present conditions) approximately one
twentieth of the pupils in the seventh grade of the school,
approximately one tenth of pupils in the ninth grade, about
one seventh of those in the tenth grade, and about one third
of those in the eleventh grade.

4. Those who remain in school through the tenth grade but who
leave at that point. Their occupations will be much the same
as those who leave at the close of the eleventh grade. The
group constitutes (under present conditions) about one tenth
of those in the seventh grade, about one fifth of those in the
ninth grade, and about one third of pupils in the tenth grade.

5. Those who at present receive but one year (or less) of high-
school education. Pupils belonging to this group must enter

674 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

occupations in the fields of agriculture, industry, commerce,
or household work. For the most part they must be recruited
into the trades and the curriculum organization must recog-
nize that fact. The group constitutes about one fifth of those
who are in the seventh grade, about one fourth of those in the
eighth grade, and about one third of those in the ninth grade
of the school.

6. Where the junior-senior high school organization is in opera-
tion there must be considered in the organization of curricu-
lums the fact that about two fifths of the pupils entering the
seventh grade never proceed (under present conditions) as
far as the ninth grade. Curriculums must there be organized
for the purpose of retaining those pupils at least through the
ninth grade and for the purpose of providing curriculums as
effective as possible for those who must leave at the close of
the junior high school.

It is, of course, obvious that the distribution of pupils
among the groups above mentioned is true for the country
at large only and will not hold for individual communities.
The importance to be attached to the different groups must
vary with the character of the community and the second-
ary-school population. It is obvious also that the conditions
at present obtaining will not remain constant but that with
each improvement in the organization of the school system
the proportions of pupils falling in any of the above-men-
tioned groups may be radically changed. Whatever be the
conditions at any time, however, in the organization of cur-
riculums attention must be paid to the expectancy of stay
of different pupils in the school and their probable later
activities.

320. Constant and variable elements. Certain subjects of
study are of such universal value that they may legitimately
find a place in practically every curriculum provided and
be engaged in (under normal conditions) by practically
every pupil at appropriate stages in the course, without
regard for the special activities connected with particular

CURRICULUMS 675

occupations. Such subjects may well be organized in the
same way, cover the same field, and be taught in the same
manner for all pupils in all curriculums. For convenience
such studies may be termed " constants."

Other subjects of study in the secondary school are of
such limited, contingent, or specialized value that they
should belong to one of three groups of studies: (1) those
found only in certain specialized curriculums; (2) those found
in several or all curriculums but with certain modifications;
(3) those not required of all pupils nor necessarily required
in any one curriculum, but open to the free election by any
pupil in whatever curriculum enrolled. The entire group
may for convenience be termed " variables "; those in group
(1) may be termed " curriculum specials," those in group (2)
may be termed " curriculum modifiables," and those in
group (3) may be termed " free electives." On the proper
distribution of the constants and several variables to a great
extent depends the success of curriculum organization.
Suggestions concerning then* proper distribution are pre-
sented in following sections.

321. The determination of constants. Two somewhat re-
lated yet separate factors determine the constants which
should enter into the curriculums of the secondary school.

(1) Fundamental, universal, and direct values character-
ize some subjects of study. Thus, whatever be the special
field of one's activities, certain elements of language use are
fundamentally important. The development of ability to
use language (the mother tongue) as an instrument for think-
ing and for the expression and interpretation of thought
must be an aim common to all curriculums and must form
a part of the education of every individual. Likewise social-
civic-moral activities must be engaged in by all individuals
and must, therefore, be a part of every curriculum in the
secondary school. As a minimum this should include a study

676 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

of the history of the United States, civics, some elements of
government, literature, and, in the junior high school, so-
cial and economic geography. In this group also must be
considered health education, together with " general " or
" elementary " science where one primary basis of its organi-
zation is the inclusion of such common scientific knowledges
as enter into the activities of almost all individuals. Further,
we must consider as belonging to this group of studies,
particularly in the junior high school, such universally im-
portant elements of arithmetic, penmanship, spelling, and
the like, as should be judged necessary for all and have not
reached the proper stages of development in the lower
grades. Finally, we must recognize, wherever possible,
certain universal elements of aesthetic appreciation, e.g.,
musical appreciation and literature in the junior high school.

A second factor affecting the determination of constants
is found in the integrating values attached to some studies,
especially to the social studies and to the mother tongue and
its literature. Fortunately for economy in education subjects
of study which contribute most to this end are the same as
some suggested by the values suggested in the preceding.

On the basis of such criteria we may suggest as constants
in the curriculums of the secondary school the following:
(a) English throughout the junior and senior high schools;
(6) some social science in each grade of the junior and senior
high schools; (c) health study throughout the junior high
school in some form, physical training through exercise in
all grades of the secondary school; (d) " general science "
in the junior high school; musical appreciation in the junior
high school. These should be considered as irreducible
minima in the group of constants.

322. The determination of variables. Three important
factors must determine the amount and character of the
variables in secondary-school curriculums.

CUKRICULUMS 677

(1) Individual differences among pupils in capacities,
acquired abilities, interests, and futures is the primary factor
determining variables in secondary-school studies. To ignore
their existence and the character of their distribution is to
come directly into conflict with nature. Nevertheless domi-
nant differences only can be considered, since the effective
and economical administration of curriculums demands that
a sufficiently large group of pupils having somewhat simi-
lar capacities, abilities, interests, and probable futures be
afforded to justify the formation of classes for instruction in
any subject. Within the limits of effective and economical
administration the number and kinds of variables introduced
into secondary-school curriculums should be as large and
diversified as possible. Any subject of study which meets the
needs of a sufficiently large number of pupils to permit
effective organization of classes and which possesses educa-
tional value is justified in the secondary school.

(2) The differentiated needs of society demand that
variable elements enter the curriculums of the secondary
school. No single group of activities in life can justifiably
monopolize the field of secondary education. Studies dealing
with every important phase of life's activities should be
represented in the program of the secondary school when-
ever they can be suited to the capacities of pupils and meet
real needs on their part.

(3) The size of the secondary school and available means
especially affect the secondary school variables. Differen-
tiated education is directly conditioned by the number of
pupils involved. In nine tenths of the secondary schools of
the country the number of variables possible is reduced to
a minimum by the fact that the enrollment is too small to
permit differentiation and by the fact that financial assets
are narrowly limited.

323. Rigid versus flexible curriculums. In the history of

678 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

the high school during the past half-century there is observa-
ble a tendency to swing alternately from the one extreme of
rigidity in curriculum organization to the other extreme of
almost entire flexibility and back again. During the early
days of the high school curriculums were rather distinctly
separated and permitted little overlapping or cross-cutting.
During the latter part of the nineteenth century curriculums
were rather loosely administered and in some cases all lines
of curriculum demarcation were practically nominal. With
the recent change in the basis of curriculum differentiation
from subject-matter to individual needs and post-scholastic
destinies there has developed a tendency to organize rather
definitely separated curriculums which permit a relatively
small amount of overlapping or cross-cutting. The advan-
tages of exclusive curriculums are readily seen: (1) such a
practice permits a much more effective organization of the
work of different curriculums and its adaptation to special
ends which are largely vocational; (2) it permits a more
homogeneous grouping of pupils; (3) it permits the more
effective direction of teaching; (4) as a result of those and
other factors involved it permits the securing of better results
as far as the special features of the different curriculums are
concerned. The disadvantages of exclusive curriculums are
no less obvious, however: (1) such a practice considers
primarily differentiation according to dominant interests
(largely vocational) and neglects other elements of differ-
entiation, by delimiting the range of subjects which may be
studied by pupils engaged in any one curriculum, thus
reducing the flexibility of the school work; (2) it tends to
introduce differentiation where advantages are small (some-
times dangerous) and disadvantages are great ; (3) it pre-
supposes a rather early determination of life interests and
life careers; (4) it presupposes that interests remain fairly
constant; (5) in nine tenths of the secondary schools of the

CURRICULUMS 670

country the rigid separation of curriculums is impractical if
not impossible.

All things considered it would appear to be reasonable
that curriculums should be characterized by a relatively
high degree of flexibility in the early grades of the secondary
school, by a relatively high degree of rigidity in the later
grades, and by a gradual transition from the one status to
the other. Such a practice would recognize in the early
grades of the secondary school (a) the desirability of a rela-
tively wide range of subject-matter favorable to educational
diagnosis, prognosis, and guidance — themselves conducive
to the possibility of greater definiteness in later work; (b) the
desirability of not anticipating too much the decision of
vocational or other choices; and (c) the desirability of per-
mitting as much adaptation to individual differences as may
be practicable. At the same time it would recognize in the
later grades of the school the desirability of definitely deter-
mined vocational work, the necessity for specialization and
concentration along definite lines, and definite propaedeu-
tic training for those whose education will continue beyond
the secondary school. It would further recognize that in
the later grades of the secondary school groups of pupils
may more readily be classified and their special needs
determined.

It should be recognized that the work of the last three
grades of the secondary school should represent rather clear-
cut and definitely directed training and in those grades the
lines of curriculum differentiation may be fairly distinct.
Before the beginning of the second year of the present four-
year high school the rigid demarcation of curriculums is un-
desirable. In the first year of the four-year high school pro-
vision must be made for adaptation, diagnosis, and guidance
and the curricula should be as flexible as possible. The
primary functions of the junior high school (where the

junior-senior secondary schools exist) preclude any rigid
demarcation of curriculums, at least in the earlier grades.
It is by no means improbable that formally separated
2urriculums are entirely out of place, though insistence must
be placed on the widest possible variation in subject offer-
ings. In general it may be said that provision for individual
differences in the first six grades is for the most part re-
stricted to differentiated teaching methods, that provision
for individual differences in the junior high school should
involve differentiated subject matter and teaching method,
and that in the senior high school should be added definitely
differentiated curriculums. However, from stage to stage
in the system the transition should be gradual.

324. Continuity and concentration. One of the most
common criticisms made by foreign observers of our second-
ary education and by our own citizens involves the failure
to secure thoroughness and the tendency to foster super-
ficiality. This is an ever-present danger where an attempt
is made to adapt education to individual differences, where
curriculums are flexible, and variables constitute important
parts of curriculums. It must be recognized that a system
of curriculum organization and administration which per-
mits a scattering of units of study, allows the pupil to study
a number of rather isolated subjects, to begin several studies
without carrying any one of them beyond the introductory
and elementary stages, to attain a smattering of many sub-
jects with failure to learn any one of them thoroughly, is
fundamentally wrong. To avoid such results it is necessary
that limits be set to the variables which are found in any
student's program. One way of accomplishing this is to
require sequential or advanced work in some specified fields.
A method better adapted to the demands of individual
differences is to require that advanced work be done in
some one or more fields with the selection of the field of

CURRICULUMS 681

" concentration " dependent on the individual student.
Thus a " major " may be required in some one of the fields
not considered " constants " in the curriculums — natural
science, mathematics, foreign language, fine arts, or the
various fields of practical and vocational arts. At least one
such major should be required of every " normal " pupil.

325. Required, preferential, and elective subjects. Edu-
cational practice in the past has commonly (a) made the
completion of a prescribed amount of work of definitely
specified character an absolute prerequisite for entrance to
the secondary school, and (6) made an absolute prescription
of certain subjects in the curriculums of the secondary-
school . As a result pupils in large numbers have been re-
tained in the elementary-school grades long after they have
ceased to receive appreciable benefit through the studies
there offered, after they have passed far beyond the normal
age for elementary-school grades, and after they have
chronologically, physiologically, and socially grown far be-
yond the groups of pupils with whom they are associated.
Inevitably this leads to undesirable retardation and ulti-
mately to elimination before they have come into contact
with any forms of education other than those of the ele-
mentary school. Doubtless admission to the secondary
school must always be determined primarily by " peda-
gogical age." Nevertheless, this criterion should be supple-
mented by other criteria of chronological, physiological, and
social age, and all pupils so mature chronologically, physio-
logically, or socially that they may benefit more by some
forms of secondary education than by the limited offerings
of elementary education, should be admitted to some form
of secondary education. Such a practice necessarily means
that no single subject of study of the secondary school can
be considered absolutely and invariably " required." Hence
" constants " in the curriculums must be considered as

682 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

" preferential " rather than " required." Here it is prob-
able that some distinction must be made between diploma
" requirements " and curriculum requirements. Limitation
should not be placed on the courses of study which the
individual pupils may take. Limitations involving " re-
quired " subjects must be placed on requirements for a
diploma. For normal pupils " required " subjects are
appropriate. For somewhat atypical pupils the absolute
requirement of specified subjects cannot justly be made
without the expectation of retardation, elimination, and
loss of time, energy, and money. For the entire pupil group
of the secondary school subjects of study which are con-
sidered of universal value must at best be considered as
" preferential." For " normal " pupils certain subjects of
study may well be considered " required."

In some ways it is unfortunate that the term " elective "
has been applied to subjects of study falling in the group
of " variables " — unfortunate because the term implies
that the selection of " variables " can be or should be left to
the judgment of the pupils for the most part. " Election "
of subjects or of curriculums is peculiarly unfortunate where
provision is not made (a) for training in the earlier grades
which may provide a basis for intelligent selection, and (6)
for educational guidance. A necessary accompaniment of
differentiation in subject matter and in curriculums is pro-
vision for diagnostic training and educational guidance.

326. Immediate and deferred values. A glance at the
curriculums proposed by the Committee of Ten discloses
the fact that they assume the completion of the entire course
on the part of most pupils entering the school and that the
value of the first-year's work is largely dependent on later
study. Recognition of the fact that large proportions of
pupils must leave the secondary school after one, two, or
three years of study demands that, as far as is possible,

CTJRRICULUMS 683

curriculums should be so organized as to subordinate de-
ferred values to immediate values so that the maximum of
benefit may be secured by those who must leave school early
and at the same time that progressively greater benefit may
accrue to those who continue. This is in part a matter of
subject organization and teaching method, in part a matter
of curriculum organization. The principle applied to the
former factor suggests that in the earlier grades of the
secondary school subject be organized and taught with
special reference to the major and more important elements
immediately applicable to the activities of life and more
technical, specialized, and refined elements postponed to
further study in later grades. Applied to the factor of
curriculum organization the principle suggests (a) the in-
troduction in early grades of some subjects specifically
designed for immediate use by those who will leave school
early; (b) the organization of such courses as " general "
science, community civics, etc., in the junior high school
grades for the distinct purpose of providing values imme-
diately available.

III. CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION BASED ON
PRINCIPLES SUGGESTED

327. Preliminary explanation of curriculums. It is ob-
vious that the character of curriculum organization in the
secondary school of any given community must be condi-
tioned by the size of the pupil population, its character, and
the resources of the school and community, so that it is
impossible to determine any single curriculum organization
which is appropriate in toto for all secondary schools. As
a working basis the curriculum organization outlined below
assumes a secondary-school population sufficiently large and
sufficiently diversified to make possible the extensive offer-

684 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ing suggested and sufficient resources to allow the organiza-
tion and offering of any form of education for which there
exists a reasonable demand and which the best educational
theory can justify. By a process of elimination where neces-
sary or desirable it is possible to outline the curriculum
organization of any secondary school on the basis of the
plan suggested.

The curriculum organization outlined below considers
the school work of the six grades following six grades of
elementary education. For convenience the organization is
outlined on the basis of two three-grade divisions which
would correspond to but not necessarily involve a three-
grade junior high school followed by a three-grade senior
high school. An examination of the organization outlined
will show that relatively slight modifications would adapt
the scheme to the eight-four system now commonly found,
provided the work of the seventh and eighth grades were
reorganized as suggested. The latter reorganization appears
desirable whatever be the form of external administration
and divisional separation.

In the organization outlined for grades seven, eight, and
nine formal separation of studies into curriculums is pur-
posely avoided on the ground that any organization of
formally separated curriculums tends seriously to endanger
flexibility, to encourage premature specialization, and to
interfere seriously with the diagnostic and exploring function
of the earlier grades. Failure to make a formal differentia-
tion into separate curriculums is far from meaning that
different groups of pupils will not pursue differentiated lines
of work. The absence of curriculum names and classifica-
tions is designed solely to obviate the tendency for pupils to
select special lines of work too early, to continue in whatever
lines they may have entered through inertia, ignorance, or
following the lines of least resistance, and to prevent the

CURRICULUMS 685

tendency of school officers permanently to catalog pupils
in any category wherein they may once have been placed.
Formal curriculum demarcation has no place in the early
grades of the junior high school and for few groups even in
the last grade. At the most definitely separated curriculums
should be provided only in the last grade of that school and
for those pupils only who will clearly leave at the end of
the junior high school.

In the organization outlined certain studies are considered
as constants to be studied by all pupils of normal progress
and as studies required for the secondary-school diploma.
It is to be recognized, however, that those mature pupils
who have been admitted to the seventh grade without the
successful completion of the regular work of the first six
grades may be allowed to study any combination of subjects
which their limited attainments, capacities, and interests
may permit. Such pupils are to be considered as atypical,
destined in the majority of cases to leave school before the
completion of the secondary-school course, and entitled to
receive at best certificates of the work which they have
done rather than the diploma of the school, unless later
work may justify their readmission to full standing.

328. Curriculum organization for the junior high school.
Below are outlined two forms of curriculum organization
which are suggested as possible schemes for the junior high
school — grades seven, eight, and nine. Neither, of course,
is to be considered as the necessary or even the most de-
sirable form of organization. The sole purpose in presenting
the two forms of organization is to illustrate possible ways
in which principles previously considered may be applied.

Form I illustrates a possible curriculum organization for
a junior high school where no provision is made for super-
vised study or combined recitation-study periods. The
number of class meetings is assumed to correspond to present

686 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

practice in the seventh and eighth grades, i.e., about thirty
to thirty-five class meetings per week, the length of each
period being approximately thirty minutes.

TABLE CLIV. CUBBICULUM ORGANIZATION FOR A JUNIOR
HIGH SCHOOL: FORM I

Grade?

GradeS

Grade 9

Periods

Studies
Constants :

English 5

Geography (3), history

(2) 5

Physiology and hygiene 3

Arithmetic 5

Physical education. ... 2
Music (appreciation) . . 2
Practical arts: domes-
tic arts (girls); man-
ual arts (boys) 5

Total constants .... 27

Variables :
English: various

branches for those

deficient 2

Arithmetic: for those

deficient 2

Foreign language 5

Fine arts 3

Music (technical) 3

Commercial studies ... 5

Clerical studies 5

Industrial studies 5

Domestic studies 5

Agricultural studies. . . 5

Total variables 4-8

Periods

Studies Periods Studies

Constants : Constants :

English 5 English 5

History (U.S.), civics. 5 Community civics .... 5

General science 5

Physical education. ... 2

General science

Mathematics: (A) com-
bined arithmetic, al-
gebra, geometry; or
(B) commercial
arithmetic 4

Physical education.. .. 2

Music (appreciation). . 2

Total constants 23

. ...
Music (appreciation). . 2

Total constants 19

Variables :
English: various
branches for th

ose

Variables :
Foreign language 5
Mathematics 5

. . 2

.. 5

Fine arts 5

Fine arts

. . 3

Music (technical).. .. 3

Music (technical). .
Commercial studies
Clerical studies. . . .
Industrial studies. .
Domestic studies . .
Agricultural studies

.. 3
5-10
5-10
5-10
5-10
5-10

Commercial studies 5-15
Clerical studies. . . . 5-15
Industrial studies. . 5-15
Domestic studies . . .5—15
Agricultural studies 5-15

Total variables. . . 8-12

Total variables .. 12-15

NOTES: 1. The numbers of periods set are merely approximations and intended to be sug-
gestive rather than fixed.

2. The practical arts constant in the seventh grade may be made diagnostic
"short-unit" courses if desired.

3. It is not expected that all schools, perhaps not any school, will provide all the
studies listed under variables. The extended list is presented for selection
according to the needs and resources of any given school.

4. It is expected that the more able pupils may pass directly from the eighth grade
into the senior high school.

5. Definitely separated curriculums may be organized for special groups of pupils
who will leave school at the close of the ninth grade, if that course appears
justified.

Form II illustrates a possible curriculum organization
where provision is made for combined recitation-study
periods. The entire school day is assumed to be seven hours
in length — one half -hour each day for assembly, opening

CURRICULUMS 687

exercises, music, and auditorium work, one half -hour each
day for lunch, and six hours net (including time for changing
classes) for class meetings, each period being one hour in
length (inclusive of time for change of classes) . The same
program may be encompassed in a six-hour day where each
period is made fifty minutes in length. The curriculum
organization of Form I may be adapted to that of Form II
with a few modifications in the number of periods assigned
to some studies.

TABLE CLV. CUBBICULUM ORGANIZATION FOB A JUNIOR
HIGH SCHOOL: FORM n

Grade? Grade S Grade 9

Studies Periods Studies Periods Studies Periods

Constants : Constants : Constants :

English 5 English 5 English 5

Geography and history 5 History and civics. . . 5 Community civics .... 4

Arithmetic 5 General science 4 General science 4

Physiology and hygiene 3 Mathematics 4 Physical education 2

Physical education. ... 2 Physical education.. . 2

Practical arts 5

Total constants 25 Total constants ... 20 Total constants 15

Variables 5 Variables 10 Variables 15

NOTES: The notes appended to Form I (Table CLTV) apply here. The same studies as
those in Form I are meant here. The variables are the same here as for Form I.

329. Curriculum organization of the senior high school.
Detailed analysis of the curriculum organization of the
senior high school in grades ten, eleven, and twelve is ren-
dered very difficult in the abstract for a number of reasons :
(a) the major part of the work of those grades should con-
sist of differentiated studies involving many variables, the
enumeration of which would be of little worth for any
given secondary school; (6) the character of the variables
must differ in different communities, especially with refer-
ence to vocational studies; (c) in the majority of secondary
schools complete offerings are economically impossible and
selections must be made rigorously; (d) the distribution of
studies in grades ten to twelve must be dependent to some

688 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

extent on the distribution of studies in grades seven to nine
so that all possible combinations cannot be presented in any
single and simple tabulated scheme.

The general form of curriculum organization in the senior
high school may be readily outlined. By the beginning of
the tenth grade it should be possible to group pupils for the
most part into divisions according to their dominant inter-
ests, abilities, and destinies, at least in a tentative fashion.
Curriculum differentiation, with definite though not exclu-
sive lines of demarcation, should be possible and should be
determined according to the dominant interests, abilities,
and destinies of pupils. A somewhat comprehensive organi-
zation would then provide for the curriculum groupings
suggested in this list.

(1) For those entering business and clerical occupations -
the business and clerical curriculums, including the follow-
ing more or less overlapping curriculums : (a) various forms
of office and clerical occupations which emphasize such
studies as bookkeeping, stenography and typewriting, corre-
spondence, circularizing, filing, etc.; (6) merchandizing,
selling, and store service; (c) any other group of business or
clerical arts.

(2) For those entering industrial occupations — the
industrial curriculums, including curriculums preparing
for (a) building trades; (6) wood-working trades; (c) metal-
working trades; (d) machinist trades; (e)-(?) any other
industrial occupations desirable and practicable according
to the needs of pupils and society.

(3) For those entering agricultural occupations — agri-
cultural curriculums, including those involving preparation
for (a) general farming; (fe) animal husbandry; (c) - (?)
special phases of agricultural work according to the needs
of pupils and society.

(4) For girls entering domestic occupations and other

CURRICULLMS 689

girls not enrolled in other curriculums — domestic curricu-
lums, including those involving (a) preparation for house-
keeping and home-making; (b) the preparation for nursing
as a separate occupation; (c) the preparation of skilled
workers in institutions calling for domestic and personal
service. Some parts of these curriculums may well overlap
industrial occupations in the textile and clothing trades.

(5) For pupils entering higher institutions — preparatory
curriculums including those preparing (a) for the academic
college; (6) the technical or other special college; (c) the
normal school.

(6) For pupils whose future activities cannot yet be
determined with any assurance — the general curriculum.
In this curriculum the basis of the selection of studies
should involve fundamental and diagnostic forms of
education.

(7) - (?) In some of the largest schools it is practicable
to establish other special curriculums, e.g., for music and
fine arts.

In all this curriculum organization it should be recognized
that three "areas" are to be considered: (a) the area of con-
stants; (6) the area of curriculum restriction; (c) the area
of free election. The area of constants includes that portion
of the work of the senior high-school work which is to engage
the attention of all pupils of regular standing. Here belongs
the study of English, social science, and physical training.
The area of curriculum restriction includes that portion of the
work of the senior high school which provides for the special-
ized education appropriate to the various special curricu-
lums. The area of free election includes that part of the
school work which should be left to the unrestricted choice
of the pupil whatever special curriculum may engage his
particular attention, save only in so far as he may not pos-
sess qualifications necessary successfully to pursue any

690 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

study. While it is difficult to determine definitely the exact
proportions which should be allotted to these three areas, it
may be suggested that approximately two fifths of the total
time should be devoted to constants in the curriculum or-
ganization, approximately two fifths to the coordinate stud-
ies of some one curriculum, and approximately one fifth to
studies according to the unrestricted election of the pupil.
These last studies may or may not be elected within the
field of his special curriculum interest. Diagramatically
the approximate distribution of these three areas may be
represented as follows.

FIGURE W. ILLUSTRATING THE GENERAL FORM OF CURRICULUM
ORGANIZATION IN THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

CONSTANTS

S
CUB

PECIA
RICUL

L
UMS

FREE ELECTION

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

Analyze the curriculum of the last two grades of the present elementary
school. How does the existing curriculum compare with that suggested
for the first two grades of the junior high school? (Cf. Fourteenth Year-
book of the National Society for the Study of Education, part i; Sixteenth
Yearbook, part i.)

CURRICULUMS 691

2. Consider the curriculum organization of the junior high school with
reference to its diagnostic and exploring function.

3. Trace the influence of college admission requirements on the curriculum
organization of the secondary school.

4. Compare the curriculum organization of higher schools La Prussia,
France, and the United States.

5. What measures can you suggest to prevent scattering and superficiality
in American secondary education?

6. What are the arguments for and against the absolute prescription of
certain studies in all curriculums and for all pupils?

7. For any given community work out an ideal curriculum organization
for its secondary schools.

8. How is curriculum organization affected by factors of retardation,
acceleration, and elimination?

9. Trace the influence of proper recognition of the factor of individual
differences on the curriculum organization of secondary schools.

10. Show the bearing of theories of development on the curriculum organi-
zation of the secondary school.

11. Analyze the influence of social factors on the curriculum organization
of the secondary school.

12. Compare and criticize the curriculum organization of three actual
secondary schools, one in an agricultural community, one in an in-
dustrial city, and one in a residential city.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Davis, C. O., High-School Courses of Study.

Eliot, C. W., Changes Needed in American Secondary Education, Publica-
tions of the General Education Board, Occasional Papers, no. 2.

Flexner, A., A Modern School, Publications of the General Education
Board, Occasional Papers, no. 3

Hollister, H. A., High-School Administration, chap. vn.

Hollister, H. A., High School and Class Management, chap. xv.

Johnston, C. H., "Curriculum Adjustments in Modern High Schools,"
School Review, vol. xxn, pp. 577-90.

Johnston, C. H., "What is Curriculum Differentiation," Educational Ad-
ministration and Supervision, vol. II, pp. 49-57.

Koos, L. V., The Administration of Secondary-School Units.

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization of
Secondary Education, Report of Committee on Organisation and Adminis-
tration, Bureau of Education Bulletin.

National Education Association, Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary
School Studies.

National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization o-

692 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Secondary Education, Report of the Reviewing Committee, Bureau of
Education Bulletin.

National Education Association, Report of the Committee on the Articulation
of High School and College, Proceedings of the National Education Associa-
tion (1911), pp. 559-67.

Newlon, J. H., "The Need for a Scientific Curriculum Policy for Junior and
Senior High Schools," Educational Administration and Supervision,
vol. in, pp. 253-68.

Rapeer, L. W., "A Core Curriculum for High Schools," School and Society,
vol. v, pp. 541-49.

Sachs, J., The American Secondary School, chap. in.

Snedden, D., "The High School of To-morrow," School Review, vol. xxv,
pp. 1-15.

Snedden, D., pp. 214-31, 745-74, of Monroe, P. (Editor), Principles of
Secondary Education.

Yocum, A. D., "The Determinants of the Course of Study," Proceedings of
the National Education Association (1914), pp. 223-35.

Young, J. R., "Reorganization of the High-School Curriculum," Educa-
tional Review, vol. LIII, pp. 122-37.

CHAPTER XXI

THE ORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

(continued)

I. SOME PHASES OF EXTERNAL, ORGANIZATION

330. The place of the secondary school. For the individ-
ual education is a unitary and continuous process which
predicates no separate stages of elementary, secondary, and
higher education except in the most general senses. For this
reason a system of education which proceeded gradually
and without points of abrupt transition would be the ideal.
In such a system secondary education could be considered
merely an indistinctly defined division which developed
gradually out of an indistinctly defined elementary edu-
cation and merged gradually into an indistinctly defined
higher education. However, where children must be edu-
cated in groups the exigencies of school economy and effi-
cient administration necessitate the organization of the
school system into divisions which externally at least are
more or less separate. Thus for younger pupils in the lower
grades a large number of buildings must be provided, so
situated as to minimize the distance to be traveled: for
older pupils fewer buildings are required and distance is a
matter of less importance. For younger pupils studies are
relatively uniform: for older pupils differentiated education
must be provided. For younger pupils the single teacher
plan is possible and appropriate : for older pupils specialists
in various fields are necessary and appropriate. These and
numerous other factors sooner or later in the school system
necessitate changes in educational procedure which require

694 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

special forms of school organization and result in adminis-
tration divisions.

If it be recognized that the exigencies of organization and
administration necessitate the division of the school system
into two or more departments, the problem at once presents
itself — At what point or points should the division or divi-
_sions come? In Chapter VII were adduced certain consid-
erations suggesting that our present organization is faulty
in many respects and that a better scheme would be as
follows: elementary schools for children of ages approxi-
mately six^ to twelve (grades one to six) and secondary
schools for pupils of ages thirteen to eighteen (grades seven
to twelve), with an organization such as to provide junior
high schools for pupils of ages approximately thirteen to
fifteen (grades seven to nine) and senior high schools for pu-
pils of ages approximately sixteen to eighteen (grades ten
to twelve). Some of the more important considerations in-
volved may be summarized briefly here.

(1) Pupils in grades one to six are predominantly imma-
ture physiologically: in grades ten to twelve they are pre-
dominantly mature: in grades seven to nine they are in
a transitional stage as far as the factor of puberty is con-
cerned. At the age of twelve less than five per cent of the
pupils are post-pubescent : at the age of sixteen more than
four fifths of the pupils are post-pubescent: ages thirteen
to fifteen are markedly transitional ages as far as puberty
is concerned.1

~~ (2) Elimination does not begin to manifest its influence
strongly until about the age of fourteen — the close of the
compulsory attendance period in most States. In the school
it becomes noticeable by the beginning of the sixth grade
and is at present very strong in grades seven, eight, and
nine. It is important that some of the phases of secondary
1 Cf. chapters i and n.

ORGANIZATION 695

education be operative before the majority of pupils leave
school.1 It is also important that the broader field of sec-
ondary education should have an opportunity to exert its
influence on the retention of pupils.

(3) Individual differences are manifest in all stages of
education. They become greater and increasingly impor-
tant as pupils progress through the grades. While there is
no single point at which one may say that they demand
special attention, it is probable that special consideration
should be given that factor and special provision should be
made as early as the sgventh^grade. Certain it is that such
provision is now delayed too long. It is to be noted that
effective provision for individual differences cannot be made
unless fairly large total groups of pupils are involved.
Provision for individual differences to the extent demanded
by secondary education cannot be made effective in the
ordinary elementary schools.

(4) Before the pupil enters on rather specialized education
in the later grades of the system he should have some oppor-
tunity to try out and test his capacities and interests. Pro-
vision for such diagnostic education becomes an important,
function of the junior high school, leaving the major part
of specialized education to the senior high school or, in some
cases, to the college and university.

(5) The junior high school also provides for a possible
somewhat rounded out education for those pupils who must
leave school at an early date.

(6) Of the various forms of organization in the second-
ary school the " three-three plan " appears most desirable.
Its most serious competitor is the " two-four plan." The
latter plan is objectionable for several reasons, (a) It fos-
ters the perpetuation of many evils which have grown up
around the present organization. It is improbable that

1 Cf . chapter rv.

696 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

undesirable methods of teaching and of organization which
have developed in connection with our present first-year
work in the high school can be remedied as long as the ex-
isting organization of the high school is retained. (6) The
break which is now in evidence between the eighth and
ninth grades corresponds in time with the close of the com-
pulsory attendance period. The " three-three " plan " strad-
dles " that critical point to some extent and thus distrib-
utes eliminating factors, (c) The " two-four " plan does not
correspond well with the factor of development at puberty.

One great danger threatens the success of the " six-three-
three " plan — that through the organization of three de-
partments in the school system education may lose unity
and continuity. Throughout it must be kept in mind that
administration should always conform as far as possible
to educational demands rather than require that educa-
tional demands be subordinated to administration. This
means that in the division of the system into three depart-
ments the greatest care should be exercised to avoid breaks
in the education of the pupils.

Particularly important in this connection are problems
of articulation between the elementary school and the
junior high school and between the junior high school and
the senior high school. It is imperative that the work of the
seventh grade be carefully articulated with the work of the
"sixth grade. Promotion from the elementary school to the
junior high school should be based primarily on pedagogical
progress, i.e., the accomplishment of the work of the first
six grades. This should be supplemented, however, by atten-
tion to other measures of maturity, e.g., chronological age,
j psychological age, physiological age, and social age. Re-
gardless of pedagogical achievement a pupil so mature
(mentally, physiologically, chronologically, or socially) that
he can secure greater benefit from some phases of the junior

ORGANIZATION 697

high school work than from continuance in the elementary
school, should be promoted arbitrarily to the junior high
school. In general the same principle should be observed
in promotion to the senior high school.

It has been suggested at times that the character of the
junior high school work should be determined by the needs
of those who will not go to the senior high school. Any such
conception is totally unjustified. The junior high school
should certainly provide an effective education for pupils-
who will not enter the senior high school. This cannot
mean, however, that its responsibility for the education of
those who will continue their education can be neglected.
On the other hand, there is constant danger that the work
of the junior high school may be determined by the demands
of the senior high school. Important though the needs of
those who are to enter the upper school may be, they can-
not cause us to lose sight of the needs of those who must
leave at the close of the junior high school. The character
of the work of the senior high school must be determined by
the capacities, attainments, and needs of the pupils who
come from the junior high school. The senior high school
must not dominate the work of the junior high school.

One of the weakest links in the system of education hi
America is the continuation school. In many communities
no form of continuation education is provided at all. In
communities which do make some provision for such edu-
cation it is largely confined to " evening school " work. In
many communities which provide evening schools the char-
acter of the work is so unsatisfactory that it scarcely de-
serves the name education. In 1914—15 communities of
over 5000 population reported nearly 700;000 pupils en-
rolled in evening schools. l Probably less than 500,000 pupils

1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n.
pp. 232-38.

698 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

actually attended evening schools for any appreciable period
in that year. Compared with the number of boys and girls
of ages appropriate for continuation education and not
enrolled in the regular day schools that number is insig-
nificant. Since attendance at school up to the age of about
fourteen is almost universally compulsory in the country,
it is clear that the greater part of continuation education
(except for foreigners) must be of secondary character. In
this country we have scarcely begun to recognize the impor-
tance of continuation education for those pupils who leave
school early. In the reorganization of the school system
definite and adequate provision must be made for the articu-
lation of the junior high school in particular with forms of
continuation education.

331. Comprehensive versus special-type secondary
schools. The development of specialized curriculums for
various groups of pupils in the secondary school has created
this important problem in the organization and administra-
tion of secondary education — should secondary education
be provided through comprehensive or composite schools in
which all phases of the work are included in one unified
— scheme of organization and administration, or should it be
provided through several special-type secondary schools,
each restricted to a single curriculum or related group of
curriculums? Within recent years there has been manifest
a growing tendency in large cities to establish a series of
-special-type high schools, e.g., commercial high schools,
technical high schools, industrial schools, practical-arts
high schools, and the like. With the development of the
junior high school there has even been a tendency in some
cities to establish special-type junior high schools. In
Chapter XX the position was taken that the organization
of clearly differentiated curriculums is out of place in the
junior high school, except possibly for special groups of pupils

ORGANIZATION 699

who must leave school at the close of the ninth grade. If
this contention be sound, it follows that special-type junior
high schools cannot be justified. The problem reduces it-
self, therefore, to the present four-grade high school or the
senior high school of the reorganized system.

First to be considered is the possibility of special-type
high schools. In considering problems of secondary educa-
tion in America no error is more common than that of
assuming the large secondary school in a populous com-
munity as typical. The census of 1910 showed that there
were 226 cities in the country having each a population of
25,000 or over, distributed as follows: 117 cities having a
population of from 25,000 to 50,000; 59 cities having a popu-
lation each of from 50,000 to 100,000; 42 cities having each
a population of from 100,000 to 500,000 (the estimate for
1915 indicates 51) ; 5 cities having each a population of from
500,000 to 1,000,000 (the estimate for 1915 indicates 6); and
3 cities having each a population of over 1,000,000. Cer-
tainly cities having a population of less than 25,000 cannot
consider the establishment of more than one high school of
the present type or more than one senior high school, and
few cities of less than 50,000 population can economically
establish more than one such high school. One hundred
cities would probably be a liberal estimate of the number of
communities which might be able to establish systems of-
special-type high schools. Even then many of those cities
could not establish more than two high schools. Any com-
plete system of special-type high schools is an impossibility
in all but a very few of the largest cities in the country. For
the country at large the only possibility of a thorough-going
system of special type high schools would be found in the
total abandonment of local community schools and the
development of a system of regional high schools. The most
enthusiastic advocate of special-type high schools would

700 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

scarcely recommend such a procedure. If further evidence
is wanted, it should be supplied by the figures presented in
Table XLIX. Those figures indicate that nearly eleven-
twelfths of all the public high schools in the country are
located in communities of less than eight thousand popula-
tion each, those high schools having on the average from
sixty to sixty -five pupils each.

The problem under consideration is thus limited to a few
very large cities. It, therefore, remains to consider the
relative advantages and disadvantages of comprehensive or
composite high schools and special-type high schools in
very populous communities. Among the principal advan-
tages claimed for the special-type high school are the follow-
ing: (a) the work of each school may be definitely directed
along specialized lines; (6) more homogeneous groupings of
pupils are possible ; (c) various phases of the school work may
be coordinated and concentrated on definite ends; (d) by
bringing together all pupils engaged in one group of related
curriculums more effective use of the school plant and the
teaching force; (e) where vocational education is involved a
higher degree of vocational interest may be developed in the
special-type vocational school; (/ ) many matters such as the
arrangement of the daily program, the assignment of rooms,
and other elements of school machinery, may be more
readily and more effectively administered in the special-
type school ; (g) in schools limited to special forms of educa-
tion the school plant may be better adapted to the needs of
special curriculums, especially where practical arts and vo-
^cational work require specially constructed rooms, special
apparatus, and special organization; (k) by concentrating
,11 special curriculum work in special schools such education
is made more economical.

Among the principal objections to special-type secondary
schools may be mentioned the following: (1) They tend

ORGANIZATION 701

toward a dangerous overemphasis on those special phases of
education which form the basis of the special schools and
toward the subordination of aims and functions not limited
to special curriculums. (2) They tend to diminish the inte-
grating function of secondary education by the separation of
various social and vocational groups. In the past the social
factor involved in the establishment of special-type schools
has operated commonly to interfere seriously with the
proper development of vocational education as well as with
other forms of secondary education. (3) The establishment
of special-type schools commonly leads to a reduction in
the flexibility of programs and curriculums by lessening the
range of variables in each school and by separating curricu-
lums so that even the necessary and desirable amount of
cross-cutting becomes impossible. (4) The effective admin-
istration of a system of special-type schools presupposes that
real educational or vocational preferences determine the
choice of schools by pupils or for pupils. As a matter of fact,
many other factors affect the choice of school, some of which
are quite irrelevant and may be antagonistic to real educa-
tional or vocational needs. Thus many pupils choose the
high school which is nearest their homes, others the school
to which their friends have gone or are going, others the
school providing social attractions or having successful ath-
letic teams. Hence in many cases the very purpose of the
special-type high school is defeated by factors not readily
controlled by school authorities. (5) Once such a choice of
school is made, transfer to another school is relatively un-
common, however ill-adapted the work of the school chosen
is to the capacities or interests of the pupil. No system of
educational organization and administration can prevent a
certain loss of time and energy when mistakes are made in
the choice of educational offerings. However, where transfer
from curriculum to curriculum is made difficult, as in the

702 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

special-type school organization, the correction of original
mistakes is rendered difficult. (6) Under a special-type high
/school organization it is assumed that dominant interests and
aptitudes may be determined at an early age and that they
remain essentially constant. Both assumptions are contrary
to fact. With the establishment of a junior high school pro-

^vIHing opportunities for diagnostic education and with an
effective plan of educational guidance in operation, the situa-
tion may be improved. However, educational prognosis can
never be perfect and for that reason flexibility in secondary-
school organization and administration is imperative. (7) It
is an axiom of education that attendance at school, es-

I pecially where legal mandate is not operative, is in propor-
tion to the accessibility of schools. The maintenance of
special-type high schools necessarily increases the distance
to be traveled by many pupils. This means much time lost
in travel, much expense for that travel, and a decrease in the
attracting power of the high school. In this connection it
may be noted also that the interest of parents, of the pupils,
and of the community in the school is lessened where schools
are at a distance from the homes. (8) The economy claimed
for special-type high schools is by no means established.
Granted that the expense of operating such schools is eco-
nomical as far as the school budget is concerned, there still
remains the problem of expense to the pupils. On the
assumption of two hundred days in the school year and a
traveling expense of ten cents each day per pupil, the cost to
parents per year per pupil becomes twenty dollars — a
sizable fee for education in a free public school. If five hun-
dred pupils are compelled to incur such expense because of
the distance of the special-type schools the total added cost
of education for that group becomes ten thousand dollars.
The figures are, of course, merely illustrative, but they sug-
gest the possibility that the economy of special-type schools

ORGANIZATION 703

is sometimes at the expense of pupils attending — a situation
quite inconsistent with the conception of public education
in America.

On the whole it appears: (a) that special-type junior high
schools are unjustifiable; (6) that special-type four-grade
high schools or senior high schools are practicable in a very
few large cities only; (c) that the comprehensive or composite
or consolidated high school should be the standard type even
in the largest cities. The problem is closely related in all
cases to the problem of the organization of vocational edu-
cation considered in the following section.

In cities where two or more high schools are maintained
it is not always possible to provide all curriculums in all
schools, in as much as the number of pupils enrolled in some
curriculums is so small as to render uneconomical separate
groups in each high school. Here the lesser of two evils must
be chosen and certain curriculums may be organized in one
school only with provision for the attendance at that school
of pupils from other districts who should be enrolled in those
curriculums. The comprehensive or composite high school,
however, should remain the standard type.

A somewhat analogous problem is involved in small
country high schools. All desirable curriculums cannot be
offered in every small high school. Effective organization
would suggest that certain curriculums be offered in selected
schools only and that provision be made for the admission
to these schools of pupils from nearby communities whose
needs require such specialized curriculums. The dis-
advantages of such a policy are obvious. It requires but
little observation of rural conditions, however, to realize
that the majority of such objections arise from the necessary
limitations of high-school education in sparsely settled
districts under any form of educational organization and
administration.

It must be recognized that in the past special curriculums
have not been well organized and administered in many
comprehensive or composite high schools. The development
of special-type high schools has been due in part to this fact.
It should be noted, however, that the past and the present
are but parts of a period of reorganization and experimenta-
tion in the field of vocational education. Even in special-
ized vocational schools education to date has been far from
satisfactory. It should be noted also that the easiest path
to reform in any special field of education is always through
the isolation of that field and concentration on it. Imme-
diate benefits, however, are not always ultimate gains and
the shortest way through to a single goal is not always the
best. No important reorganization can become effective in
a day. The adjustment of modern education must take time
and we shall be fortunate if important modifications in the
school system become effective within a school generation.
Nevertheless it must be recognized that the effective opera-
tion of the comprehensive or composite high school cannot
materialize until (a) the various special curriculums within
such a school are considered as entitled to equal opportunity
and (6) each curriculum or group of related curriculums is
organized and administered so as to make it effective and
maintain its integrity. As long as our present system of
curriculum organization and administration is maintained
much of the effectiveness of secondary education will be
jeopardized. The efficiency of the comprehensive or com-
posite high school depends in no small degree on the proper
organization and administration of its curriculums.

332. Organization of vocational secondary education.
Within the past quarter of a century educational sociology
has recognized the legitimacy and importance of the voca-
tional-economic aim of secondary education. However, agree-
ment as to its legitimacy and importance has been far more

ORGANIZATION 705

general than agreement as to its organization and adminis-
tration. Here three major problems call for consideration.
(1) The first of these problems involves the relation be-
tween vocational education and other forms of education.
Commonly this problem is considered as involving the re-
lation between " vocational " and " liberal " education,
sometimes on the assumption of an antagonism of those two
forms of training. The indefiniteness and ambiguity of the
term "liberal" renders it almost profitless to consider the
problem in such terms. A better line of approach to the
problem is that outlined in Chapters IX and X where it was
suggested that the three fundamental aims of secondary
education are the social-civic aim, the economic-vocational
aim, and the individualistic-a vocational aim — involving
the training of the individual as a citizen, as a worker, and
for the worthy use of leisure. Since each individual must
participate in the three forms of activity implied in those
aims and since to a considerable extent those aims overlap,
all three aims must be recognized in the education of every
secondary -school pupil. Hence the complete separation of
vocational education can never be justified, and such state-
ments as the following must be interpreted with care.

I think the conviction is steadily growing that any form of
vocational education, to be effective, must develop its own teach-
ing processes as well as means of administration, and that on the
whole, both as to methods of instruction and instruments of ad-
ministration, it must be quite independent of general or so-called
"liberal" education. This must be so because of the fundamental
unlikenesses between the ends or purposes of liberal education and
the ends or purposes of vocational education.1

Better stated is the following :

From the standpoint of social economy it seems probable that
the tendencies described above "are wrong; that, for the sake of

1 Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, p. 57.

706 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

integral development, all the valid aims of education should be
kept in view during the entire preparatory period. Society de-
mands that each adult, within the limits of his capacity, shall be
/physically well, shall be vocationally capable, shall have civic and
^i^' moral insight and motive, and shall keep alive some cultural or
;V """aesthetic interests. But to insure this all-round development, it
is essential that each part of it receive more or less continuous
attention; it may well be doubted, for example, whether it is wise
that a youth of sixteen should devote himself exclusively to any
kind of vocational preparation, to the exclusion of all social and
cultural interests; but there is also reason to suppose that much
of our secondary education, which utterly ignores vocational con-
siderations during the formative period, not less seriously handi-
caps its students.1

The real problem involved in the relation of vocational
education and other forms of education concerns (a) the
amount and character of vocational education to be pro-
vided and (6) the stage of the introduction of specialized
vocational education. These considerations lead at once to
the second problem of the organization of vocational educa-
tion.

(2) Education in the elementary school up to the sixth
grade and for pupils up to the approximate age of twelve
cannot and should not be considered as involving vocational
education in any other than an indirect way. By the be-
ginning of the junior high school it is possible to make a start
in* " prevocational " education. Within the junior high
school should be provided opportunity for some diagnostic
education touching on vocational education in part, some
vocational information of the " survey of vocations " type,
and, for some at least, experience with the tools, processes,
materials, and products of certain occupational fields. Here
there is no place for highly specialized vocational training

1 Dutton, S. T., and Snedden, D., The Administration of Public Educa-
tion in the United States, pp. 419-20. Quoted with the permission of the
publishers, The Macmillan Company.

ORGANIZATION 707

in processes. The acquisition of vocational outlooks, in-
terests, and sympathies, the development of underlying
knowledges and fundamental skills of a broad and general
character, the beginning of education along lines which may
later become specialized — these forms of vocational edu-
cation are all that can and should be looked for in the junior
high school. In all this, however, it should be recognized
that concrete experiences, not book work and the abstract
class recitation, must be the foundation of vocational prep-
aration in the junior high school. First-hand contact with
the concrete realities involved in the field of occupations is
a necessity.

In the senior high school direct vocational education must
be provided through some highly specialized curriculums.
With proper organization of diagnostic education and " pre-
vocational " training in the junior high school, a basis for
effective direct vocational education in the upper school
should be established. For some groups of pupils (practi-
cally all pupils whose education is not to be continued in the
college or other higher institution) definite and specific
vocational training looking toward the development of
specialized vocational skill becomes an important desid-
eratum in the senior high school, though other forms of
education still have their proper place as suggested in
Chapter XX.

The continuation school so neglected in American edu-
cation should be given its legitimate and necessary place in
coordination with the junior and senior high schools. Here
again, while the function of the continuation school is by no
means restricted to vocational education, that form of
training assumes importance. In such a school vocational
education should be of a definitely specialized character,
aiming to develop occupational skill to a degree of efficiency
which is marketable.

708 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Vocational education, if it is to be really effective and
warrant the attention of the school, must be related defin-
itely and functionally with the occupational world for which
it is designed to prepare. This means that it must be
.severely " practical," not " theoretical," that it must em-
ploy the actual tools, machinery, processes, and standards
of the occupations, that training must be provided through
teachers who are themselves experts with successful experi-
ence in their respective occupations, and that the training
provided must involve first-hand contact with concrete
experiences in the processes of the appropriate occupations.
These considerations at once lead to the problem discussed
in the following.

(3) One of the most difficult and most persistent problems
of the organization of vocational education involves the
question whether it can be provided best in special curric-
ulums in comprehensive or composite high schools, in
special-type high schools, or through cooperative part-time
education. In the preceding section were considered the
relative advantages of comprehensive or composite high
schools and special-type high schools. It remains to con-
sider the relative advantages and disadvantages of vo-
cational education provided in the high school itself and
vocational education provided through cooperative part-
time education in which the pupil spends a part of his time
in the occupation itself under the direction of the school and
of the industrial officers. Here the most important factors
involved are those discussed below.

(a) Vocational education in the high school itself must
always be limited to a relatively small number of the more
important occupations and to relatively few phases of
activity common to special parts of those occupations. In
many smaller communities it is all but impossible to pro-
— vide any effective program of vocational education in the

ORGANIZATION 709

high schools because of the small numbers of pupils with
widely varying vocational needs and interests. The range of
cooperative part-time vocational education is limited only
by the occupations found in the community and the possi-
bility of securing effective cooperation on the part of those
controlling the occupations.

(6) Most forms of vocational education in the high school
are very expensive, mistaken attempts on the part of school
officers to make vocational courses " pay for themselves "
to the contrary notwithstanding. In many high schools the
authorities deceive themselves and the public through ri-
diculously absurd bookkeeping and inventories. Industrial
courses in particular are very expensive. The original ex-
pense for equipment is great, the cost of materials consumed
and in many cases wasted is high, and the constant repair
and replacement of equipment are expensive. In this con-
nection it should be noted that effective industrial education
cannot be afforded unless machinery and other equipment
are kept " up to date." In the progressive factory of to-day
much of the machinery is " scrapped " about every ten
years and depreciation is reckoned at the rate of about five
per cent the first year and much larger proportions there-
after. Much of the equipment in the high school is in use
but a small portion of the time so that overhead expense is
very great. The expense of vocational secondary education
can be reduced to a minimum through a system of part-
time cooperative work wherever such a system is possible.
Further, part-time cooperative education makes possible
some forms of vocational training whose expense would
otherwise be prohibitive. In all this problem it should be
recognized that ordinary estimates of the cost of vocational
education in the high school are very untrustworthy, in part
because of failure to account properly for depreciation of
equipment and for other overhead charges, in part because

710 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

the returns through the sale or use of products are grossly
overestimated.

(c) In a paragraph above importance was attached to the
necessity of relating vocational education as closely as
possible to the occupations for which it is designed to pre-

'-""'pare. It is very doubtful that this can be done effectively
as long as vocational education is confined to the high-school

^-building, though much may be accomplished where it is
carried on through " projects." Through cooperative part-
time education emphasis is placed on first-hand contact with
the work-a-day world of actual occupations, practice is
stressed instead of theory, industry is real not simulated
(or dissimulated), and the vocation is learned in a real voca-
tional atmosphere. Here, however, some distinction must
be made between various forms of vocational education.
Some forms of clerical work, some phases of agricultural
education, some forms of household-arts work may be car-
ried on with a fair degree of effectiveness under ordinary
high-school conditions. Other forms of those same branches
cannot be provided effectively without first-hand connec-
tion with the occupations themselves. Industrial education
in particular is very difficult, if not actually impossible, in
isolation from real industry.

(d) The slow development of cooperative part-time vo-
cational education and the restriction of vocational educa-
tion to the high school itself are due largely to the relative
ease with which vocational education may be partially or-
ganized in the high school and the difficulty of organizing
and administering cooperative education. The crux of voca-
tional education is found in its organization and administra-
tion. The special difficulty of cooperative education, even
where those who control factories, stores, and other occu-
pational enterprises are ready to cooperate, lies in the fact
that those who control and are responsible for education

ORGANIZATION 711

cannot exercise any degree of control over the vocational
situation and for that reason cannot assure satisfactory
vocational education. Obviously any appreciable degree
of control over the vocational situation itself can neither be
expected nor desired. Cooperative part-time vocational
education must always rest on a somewhat precarious foot-
ing, dependent for its success or failure on conditions which
lie beyond the control of the educational authorities. In
addition, extensive administrative machinery is necessary
for the effective supervision of cooperative part-time educa-
tion and this fact sometimes limits the value of other bene-
fits suggested in preceding paragraphs.

On the whole it appears desirable that such forms of voca-
tional education as can be provided equally well or nearly
as well in the school as in the occupation itself under part-
time arrangements would better be provided in the school
where supervision and direction can best be controlled, e.g.,
much of the clerical arts. Where it seems that the imme-
diate contact with actual work-a-day conditions are more
important, e.g., in much of the industrial work, cooperative
part-time vocational work should be provided wherever
local conditions make such cooperation possible and bene-
ficial. In this it is probable that much more should be done
than is now attempted. It should be observed, however,
that great care must be exercised in the organization of
cooperative part-time education and that it should never be
attempted except where definite binding agreements can be
made with those responsible for occupational enterprises.
The high school undertakes a great responsibility when it
entrusts an important part of the pupils' education to com-
mercial enterprises. Education must not be exploited by
industry.

712 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

II. SOME PHASES OF INTERNAL ORGANIZATION

333. The organization of instruction. While detailed
analysis of the instruction to be provided in the secondary
school as far as teaching methods are concerned lies out-
side the scope of this book, a few important matters are
so intimately related to the effective organization of sec-
ondary education that they deserve brief consideration
here.

(1) In the past the materials of high-school subjects of
study have been organized and taught according to the
demands of the studies as logically organized fields of knowl-
edge. In the reorganization of secondary education problems
of subject organization and teaching methods must be
approached from a different point of attack. The primary
criteria of subject organization are (a) the psychological
demands of the learning process as determined by the men-
tal development and previous experiences of the pupils, and
(b) the demands of the activities of life in which the pupils
will utilize the various elements of their education. This
does not necessarily mean that all subjects will lose their
logical organization. What it does mean is that whether
or not any given subject will be so organized and taught is
to be determined by the more fundamental considerations
mentioned. In some cases the entire organization of mate-
rials and methods must be changed. In other cases subjects
will be organized and taught much according to the best
practice of the present. In all probability the desirable
form of education in the junior high school will demand
radical reorganization of subjects of study in such a way as
to emphasize elements most likely to prove of value to in-
dividuals in the commoner activities of life. The greater
specialization of education in the senior high school will
permit and justify the somewhat comprehensive and logical

ORGANIZATION 713

organization of subject-matter with appropriate teaching
methods emphasizing intensive study in special fields.

(2) Closely related to the matter considered in the pre-
ceding paragraph is the matter of immediate and deferred
values. The tendency of secondary education in the past
has been to emphasize deferred values at the expense of
immediate values, to emphasize in the organization of ma-
terials and teaching methods values which depend for their
manifestation on education continued throughout the school
or extended over a period of years. We are beginning to
realize that pupils in large numbers leave school before the
close of the full course and that for them the subordination
of immediate to deferred values means decided educational
loss. As at present organized many subjects are of little
value to the pupil unless he studies them for several years.
Such studies must be reorganized and taught so that their
usefulness begins for the pupil at the start and becomes of
progressively greater value as they are studied longer. The
much-maligned "general studies" have distinct value in the
earlier grades of secondary education, i.e., in the junior high
school.

(3) One of the most promising of recent reforms in second-
ary education involves the reorganization of classroom in-
struction in the form of combined recitation, teaching, and
study. The term applied to the newer form of classroom
instruction — "supervised study" — is in many respects a
title unfortunately chosen. A better term would be "su-_
pervised learning." In brief the plan involves increased time
allotted to the class meeting, with provision for "study"
under the direct supervision of the class teacher. Intro-
duced at first for the primary purposes of providing oppor-
tunity for study under favorable conditions and of affording
opportunity to train pupils in the art of study, it bids fair to
revolutionize the class meeting into a vastly more effective

714 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

instrument of education. Its advantages are numerous:
(a) it reduces the amount of study to be done outside of the
school where conditions are frequently such as to render
effective study impossible; (6) it provides for study under
the most favorable conditions during school hours by bring-
ing the pupils' study under the direct supervision and guid-
ance of the class teacher; (c) it affords an opportunity for
the teacher to train pupils in effective methods of study both
as related to learning in general and as related to specific
studies; (d) it makes possible more effective provision for
individual differences among pupils of the same class;
(e) it makes possible the transformation of the class meeting
from a period largely devoted to testing to a period devoted
to real instruction; (/) it makes possible an effective distri-
bution of the time to "recitation," the presentation of new
material, and study; (g) it permits the "checking up" of the
work of the pupil at every step in the learning process, thus
practically eliminating the necessity for testing pupils dur-
ing the class "recitation," making dishonest work all but
impossible, and enabling the teacher to give aid at the point
where aid is most needed. The possible disadvantages of the
plan are : (a) the increased length of the school day necessi-
tated; (6) the probable necessity for a slightly larger teach-
ing staff; (c) the possibility of a somewhat increased cost
arising from those two changes; (d) the danger that teach-
ers may fail to recognize the real objects to be attained and
permit mechanization of the class meeting to defeat the
purposes of supervised learning: (e) the danger that teachers
may aid the pupils to such an extent as to diminish the
stimuli for initiative, responsibility, and independent work.
The disadvantages are slight and the dangers are amenable
to effective supervision. In the junior high school particu-
larly "supervised learning" affords a means for a gradual
transition from extensively supervised and rather depend-

ORGANIZATION 715

ent work of the elementary school to work demanding a
greater degree of independence, responsibility, and initia-
tive in the senior high school.

334. The organization of extra-curriculum education.
The secondary school has constantly tended to draw a
sharply dividing line between education through the cur-
riculum and education through various activities which have
developed in connection with school life apart from curricu-
lum demands. This tendency to isolate the two fields of
education cannot be justified. Properly organized and di-
rected the extra-curriculum activities of the secondary
school can be made instruments of education by no means
inferior to many phases of the work included within the
curriculum proper. Athletic and other games, musical
organizations, debating societies, class societies, the various
social organizations of the school — all these and other
forms of extra-curriculum activity can be so organized as
to make important contributions to the social-civic, the
economic-vocational, and the individualistic-avocational
aims of secondary education. In some schools they have been
correlated so closely with parts of the curriculum as to form
an integral part of secondary education. In other schools
they are regarded either as necessary evils to be discouraged
or as side issues which curriculum demands must con-
stantly combat. Fortunately secondary-school authorities
are beginning to recognize the peculiar educational possibil-
ities of extra-curriculum activities and the necessity of
welding the formal and informal activities of school life into
a system of integrated education. Thus an advance step
is taken in coordinating and unifying the experiences of
the educand and in breaking down the barriers between
the school and life.

Several educational possibilities are found in extra-cur-
riculum activities to a degree not approached by the major-

716 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

ity of curriculum activities. Among those possibilities may
be emphasized the following: (a) The majority of extra-
curriculum activities have developed from strong spontane-
ous interests which the school needs, not to arouse, but only
to utilize and direct. (6) Social training through actual
participation in cooperative activity is an essential element
in most forms of extra-curriculum education. This element
is at a minimum in most curriculum work, (c) Extra-cur-
riculum activities greatly extend the field of avocational
education, (d) Experience has shown that interest in certain
forms of extra-curriculum activities can do more than any
other one factor to unify the pupil body of a school.

Athletic clubs, walking clubs, and the like, afford some
of the most valuable opportunities for physical education
and should be closely correlated with curriculum demands
for physical training and hygiene. Magazine clubs, the
school paper, the dramatic club, the debating club, and
similar activities afford valuable opportunities for training
in English and should be closely coordinated with the Eng-
lish courses. Musical clubs of all sorts should become parts
of the school work in music. The social-civic and moral
ends of education find educational opportunities of great
value in all forms of extra-curriculum activities wherein
participation in cooperative enterprises plays a part. The
individualistic-avocational aim of education finds oppor-
tunities in all extra-curriculum activities. Even the eco-
nomic-vocational aim of education is not without some op-
portunities in this field, e.g., through musical organizations,
the school paper, the dramatic club, etc.

Beyond question secondary education should encompass
the extra-curriculum activities and, as far as possible, bring
them within the scope of secondary-school organization.
However, two somewhat opposed dangers must be guarded
against : (a) the danger that the strong spontaneous interests

ORGANIZATION 717

of extra-curriculum activities may lead to their overempha-
sis; (6) the danger that, in our attempts to harness extra-
curriculum activities and control them for educational pur-
poses, we may destroy the very interests which have given
those activities some of their greatest value as educational
instruments. If these two dangers be guarded against ex-
tra-curriculum activities may be made some of the most
powerful instruments of secondary education.

335. Educational diagnosis and guidance. Doubtless
educational diagnosis, prognosis, and guidance have always
played some part informally in the organization of sec-
ondary education. Doubtless too all education may be
conceived in some senses as involving a measure of diag-
nosis, prognosis, and guidance. However, definite plans
for the organization of those phases of education only within
recent years have invited the attention of educators, stimu-
lated thereto by the changing character of the school pop-
ulation, by changes in educational theory, and by such social
changes as were outlined briefly in Chapter IX. The move-
ment received its first great impetus along the line of voca-
tional guidance in the endeavor to provide a better means
of adjustment between vocational capacity or aptitude and
vocational opportunity, between the individual and his oc-
cupation, between the school and occupational life. As the
movement developed two facts became clear: (a) that from
the viewpoint of the school at least vocational guidance is
but one phase of educational guidance, which in its broader
sense includes vocational guidance, moral guidance, social
guidance, avocational guidance, and educational guidance in
the narrower sense; (6) that all educational guidance is pri-
marily and fundamentally a matter of providing a wide va-
riety of educational contacts and experiences so organized
as to meet the needs of individual differences and to afford
a basis of actual experience for the intelligent selection of

718 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

vocation and avocation, for the determination of moral and
social conduct, and for the wise choice of educational offer-
ings. The older conception of guidance involved primarily
a system of educational advice (in some cases what practi-
cally amounted to educational compulsion) with particular
reference to the selection of a vocation. The newer con-
ception of guidance involves primarily a system of educa-
tional experiences designed to permit the pupil to explore,
try out, and thus gain some understanding of his own capaci-
ties, aptitudes, and interests, to open up to the pupil's view
the opportunities of life and of education, and, as far as
possible, to make him acquainted with the privileges, de-
mands, and responsibilities of life in its various phases,
vocational and avocational, social, civic, and moral. Only
when such a basis of experience is provided can any system
of guidance by advice be safe or effective.

The diagnostic and directive function of education is
important at all stages. Specially important, even critical,
however, is the stage of education covered by the secondary
school, and in particular by the junior high school. There
the point is approached where children must leave school in
large numbers, dominant interests, sometimes evanescent,
sometimes permanent, develop rapidly under the increasing
influence of the outside world, pupils must prepare some for
immediate entrance into occupations, others for the rather
specialized work of the senior high schools, and numerous
other factors call for diagnosis, prognosis, and guidance.
Hence it is that in the junior high school special attention
must be paid to the organization of education in such a way
as to lay a basis for educational guidance along the lines
suggested above. This means : (a) the widest possible range
of educational offerings suited to the maturity of pupils,
opening up as many fields of life's activities and of educa-
tional opportunities as possible, and testing every important

ORGANIZATION 719

capacity and interest of pupils; (6) such methods of teachr
ing, forms of organization and administration, as may con-
tribute to the diagnostic and directive function of educa-
tion; (c) opportunity for gradually increasing concentration
in some fields looking forward to specialization in the senior
high school or in some cases toward direct entrance into
life; (d) the organization of certain courses primarily on the
basis of their diagnostic and prognostic possibilities, e.g.,
"survey of vocations," and possibly coordinated "short-
unit" courses; (e) an effective form of administrative ma-
chinery for educational guidance through advice, counsel-
ing, and possibly occupational placement.

336. The social organization of the school. The American
democracy depends for its existence and success on the
social consciousness and social cooperation of its citizens.
Unless the school can make a significant contribution to the
development of social consciousness and social cooperation
it must fail in one of its most important purposes. In the
endeavor to make that contribution great responsibility must
rest on the secondary school wherein is trained that some-
what select group of individuals who must ultimately exert
the greatest influence on our social and civic life. There
three important fields of opportunity are found for training
to social consciousness and social cooperation : (a) in certain
studies of the curriculum and in the socialized recitation;
(6) in many of the extra-curriculum activities of the school ;
(c) in the government or control of the pupil body. Of these
three fields the first two have already been considered.
The third deserves special consideration here.

The traditional methods of governing the pupil body have
been those of rule and authority on the part of school offi-
cers and obedience to rules and submission to authority on
the part of pupils. There can be no question that ultimate
authority must always rest with the school officers. Neither

can there be any doubt that in many respects secondary-
school pupils are far too immature to exercise complete
control over their own actions in the life of the school. Any
unlimited "student self-government " scheme is foredoomed
to failure. The failure of many honestly attempted "stu-
dent self-government" plans and of many fraudulent plans
masquerading under that title testify to its impracticability.
Nevertheless it must be recognized that there is only one
way to acquire social-cob'perativeness and that is through
social cooperation, that there is only one way to learn how
to control one's conduct and that is through meeting the
responsibility for that conduct, that there is only one way
for groups to attain the ability for self-government and that
is through actual participation by the group in its own gov-
ernment. Socially conscious and socially cooperating Amer-
ican citizens cannot be developed through the school unless
in the school those citizens are trained through actual par-
ticipation in the cooperative activities of the school. Self-
governing American citizens can be developed only through
some degree of exercise in actual self-government. The
secondary school cannot and should not avoid its responsi-
bility in this important form of education.

The emphasis above laid on training in self-government
through self-government should not lead to the conclusion
that the control and discipline of the pupil body in the
secondary school can be left to the pupils. It should, how-
ever, lead to the conclusion that from the beginning of
education in the lower grades and in increasing degree
throughout the school responsibility for various forms of
self-government should be placed on the pupils themselves
as fast as it may appear that they are able to bear the burden
successfully. It should also lead to the conclusion that
wherever possible and as far as possible the cooperation of
pupils, teachers, and administrative officers should be en-

ORGANIZATION 721

couraged in the pupil government of the school. In no
other way is there afforded any warrant or hope that the
secondary school can make its proper contribution to the
development of that social consciousness and social cooper-
ation necessary for the existence and success of our Ameri-
can democracy.

PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

1. What are some of the means which may be employed to minimize the
educational disadvantages of administrative breaks in the school
system?

2. Make a comparative study of the organization of secondary education
in two cities of somewhat similar character in general but having one
a system of comprehensive or composite high schools, the other a
system of special-type high schools.

3. Make a survey of the possibilities for cooperative part-time vocational
education in any community.

4. What are the arguments for and against specialized vocational educa-
tion in the junior high school?

5. What means can you suggest of providing greater opportunities for
secondary education in rural districts?

6. Make a comparative study of continuation schools in the United States
and in Germany, France, and England.

7. Analyze the evening-school situation in the United States or in any
one State.

8. What changes in the articulation of secondary and higher education
would be necessitated by the organization of a junior-senior high-
school system?

9. Show how the extra-curriculum activities of the secondary school might
be more effectively developed.

10. For any secondary school analyze the changes which would be necessi-
tated by the introduction of a system of supervised learning.

11. Make a study of various plans which have been elaborated for the
organization of vocational guidance. (Cf. Brewer, J. M., and Kelly,
R. W., A Selected Critical Bibliography of Vocational Guidance.)

12. Make a study of schemes for "student self-government" in secondary
schools.

13. What are the arguments for and against an undivided school system of
twelve grades?

722 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

SELECTED REFERENCES

NOTE: References given in previous chapters cover most of the problems
considered in this chapter. To those references may be added the following
which deal with educational guidance and with supervised learning.

I. Educational guidance:

Bloomfield, M., Youth, School, and Vocation.

Bloomfield, M. (Editor), Readings in Vocational Guidance.

Bloomfield, M., The Vocational Guidance of Youth.

Bloomfield, M., "Vocational Guidance and the High School," chap.

xxiv of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), The Modern High School.
Brewer, J. M., "Vocational Guidance in School and Occupation,"

Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,

vol. LXVII, pp. 54-63.

Brewer, J. M., The Vocational Guidance Movement.
Davis, J. B., Vocational and Moral Guidance. Contains bibliographies.
Hollingworth, H. L., Vocational Psychology.
Ruediger, W. C., "Avocational Guidance," chap, xxv of Johnston,

C. H. (Editor), The Modern High School.

Extended bibliography: Brewer, J. M., and Kelly, R. W., A Selected
Critical Bibliography of Vocational Guidance.

II. Supervised learning:

Allen, I. M., "Experiments in Supervised Study," School Review,
vol. xxv, pp. 398-411.

Breslich, E. R., "Teaching High-School Pupils to Study," School
Review, vol. xx, pp. 505-15.

Breslich, E. R., "Supervised Study as a Means of Providing Supple-
mentary Individual Instruction," Thirteenth Yearbook of the Na-
tional Society for the Study of Education, part i, pp. 32-72.

Colvin, S. S., An Introduction to High-School Teaching, chap. xvii.

Earhart, L. B., Teaching Children to Study.

Hall-Quest, A. L., Supervised Study. Contains bibliography.

Hall-Quest, A. L., "Present Tendencies in Supervised Study,"
Educational Administration and Supervision, vol. i, pp. 239-56.

McMurry, F. M., How to Study.

Parker, S. C., Methods of. Teaching in High Schools, chap. xvi.

Extended bibliography: Hall-Quest, A. L., Supervised Study, pp.
409-16.

INDEX

Academy, general treatment, 170-
84; relation to the public high
school, 196-97; relation to higher
education, 305.

Acceleration of pupils, general treat-
ment, 123-27. Cf. also 26-27, 290,
696-97.

Accrediting system of -admission to
college, 324-36.

Adjustive or adaptive function of
secondary education, 376-77, 668.

Administration of secondary educa-
tion, in general throughout the
book, under various titles. Cf. Aims
and functions, Program of studies,
Curriculum, Organization of secon-
dary education, Secondary educa-
tion in relation to elementary edu-
cation, Junior high school, Secon-
dary education in relation to
higher education, Individual dif-
ferences, Acceleration, Retarda-
tion. Elimination, Classification
of secondary-school pupils, Social
principles, Comprehensive high
school, Special-type high school,
Vocational education, Continua-
tion education. Part-time educa-
tion, Supervised study, Social or-
ganization, etc.

Admission to college, general treat-
ment, 303-36. Cf. College admis-
sion requirements, Secondary edu-
cation in relation to higher educa-
tion.

Admission to junior high school and
to senior high school, 696-97.

Adolescence, general treatment with
interpretations for secondary edu-
cation, 3-71. Cf. also 262-64.

^Esthetic arts, general treatment,
621-37. Cf. Music, Design and re-
lated arts.

Age, chronological, physiological, psy-

chological, and pedagogical dis-
tinguished, 5-8.

Age-grade distribution of pupils, 5-6,
68-69, 76-77.

Agricultural curriculums, 688.

Agricultural education, general treat-
ment, 605-11 ; in Germany, 222-23.
Cf. also Vocational education.

Agricultural occupations, 608-10.

Agriculture, 180, 413, 414; in the
junior high school, 686-87. Cf.
Agricultural education.

Aims and functions of secondary edu-
cation, general treatment, 367-83,
667-68. For aims of the several
studies and other school activities
see appropriate titles, e.g., English,
athletics, etc.

Algebra, general treatment of mathe-
matical study, 481-503. Cf. also,
75, 180, 186, 188, 189, 266, 272,
315, 320, 413, 414, 415, 416.

Altona plan of Reformschide, 213-15.

American History, cf . Social sciences,
History.

American Historical Association,
findings and recommendations of,
537-39.

American Political Science Associa-
tion, recommendations of Commit-
tee on the Teaching of Govern-
ment, 561.

Anatomical development, 17.

Ancient history, cf. Social Sciences,
History.

Ancient Languages, cf. Latin, Greek,
Foreign languages.

Appendicitis among secondary-school
pupils, 649.

Appreciation versus accomplishment,
390-91, 393, 440, 632, 634.

Apprentices and apprenticeship, 362,
595, 597, 600, 601. Cf. Vocational
education.

726

INDEX

Arithmetic, general treatment of
mathematical study, 481-503. Cf.
also, 75, 79, 80, 111, 112, 165, 178,
179, 180, 186, 188, 189, 283, 413,
686, 687.

Arithmetical abilities, individual dif-
ferences in, 79; of boys and girls
compared, 111; of first-year high-
school pupils, 76. Cf . Courtis.

Armston School, 181-82, 623.

Art, 665, 686, 687. Cf. ^Esthetic
arts, Design and related arts.

Articulation of elementary and se-
condary education, general treat-
ment, 261-98. Cf. also 23-27, 49-
53, 64-71, 131, 684-87, 693-98.

Articulation of secondary and higher
education, general treatment, 303-
36.

Association, development of capacity
in, 37-38; individual differences in,
76.

Astronomy, general treatment of nat-
ural science instruction, 506-29.
Cf. also 178, 180, 320, 413, 414.

Athletics, general treatment, 651-
58. Cf. also 641, 715-17. Cf.
also Physical education.

Attendance of pupils, 118-55.

Austria, 205.

Average, as a measure, 66, 85.

Average deviation, as a measure,
85.

Avocations, cf . Leisure.

Ayres, L. P., on retardation costs,
126; on elimination, 128-30; on the
mobility of labor and population,
359-60.

Bagley, W. C., on stages of develop-
ment, 41 ; on the influence of ado-
lescence, 50, 58; on the junior high
school, 296; on the transfer of im-
proved efficiency, 403.

Baldwin, B. T., on growth and school
standing, 13, 14, 16-17; on pu-
bescence, 26-28.

Belgium, 205.

Berry, C. S., on physiology, 648; on
retardation, etc., 124.

Bigelow, M. A., on biology, 517.

Biological heredity, individual dif-
ferences due to, 89-95.

Biology, general treatment of natu-
ral science instruction, 506-29. Cf.
also 414. Cf. also Botany, Zool-
ogy, Physiology.

Board schools of England, 250.

Boas, F., on growth and school stand-
ing, 8-13.

Bones, growth of, 17.

Bookkeeping, general treatment of
clerical and commercial educa-
tion, 583-93. Cf . also 180, 187, 188,
189, 413, 414.

Boston, Public Latin School, 163-65;
English Classical (High) School,
185-87; Girls' High School, 187-
88.

Botany, general treatment of natural
science instruction, 506-29. Cf.
also 180, 188, 320, 413, 414.

Boys, adolescence, 21-23, 27-32;
height and weight, 8-14; vital ca-
pacity, 15; mental traits, 36-38.
Cf. Sex, Girls, Individual differ-
ences.

Brain, development of, 16-17.

Briggs, T. H., on the junior high
school, 293-94; on social sciences,
540-41.

Bright's disease among secondary-
school pupils, 649.

Broome, E. C., on the accrediting
system, 336.

Brown, E. E., on the distinction be-
tween elementary and secondary
education, 263-64; on the accredit-
ing system, 333.

Building trades, 599-601.

Bulgaria, 205.

Biirgerschule, 220, 222.

Burnham, W. H., on the influence of
adolescence, 55-56.

Burk, F., figures for growth, 9, 10, 11,
13, 78.

Burritt, B. B., on the professional
distribution of college graduates,
316.

Business education, cf . Commercial
education.

Business English, 444, 590-91.

INDEX

727

Calculus, 413.

California, junior college in, 310-11.

Canada, 205.

Cancellation, individual differences
in, 76.

Census, Thirteenth on occupational
statistics, cf. Occupations.

Central tendency, 85-86.

Ceramic trades, 600-01.

Certificating system of admission to
college, 324-36.

Charterhouse, 248.

Chase, W. J., on the development of
memory through history, 554.

Chemistry, general treatment of nat-
ural science instruction, 506-29.
Cf. also 179, 180, 188, 272, 320,
413, 414, 415.

Child labor laws, effect of, 362-63.

Chorus work in music, 623-24, 632-
33

Chronological age, 2-8, 261-62, 275-
76.

Church and religion, effect of changes
in, 360-61. Cf. Denominational
schools, Sectarian Schools, Relig-
ious education, Moral education.

Citizenship, education for, 368-69.
Cf. Civics, Social sciences.

Civics, general treatment, 559-63.
Cf. also 413, 414, 676, 686-87.
Cf. also Social sciences.

Civil government, cf. Civics, Social
sciences.

Classics, cf. Latin, Greek, Foreign
languages.

Classical course, 508, 536, 664-66.

Classical languages, cf . Latin, Greek,
Foreign languages.

Classification of secondary-school
pupils, 146-55, 672-74. Cf. also
118-45. Cf. also Individual differ-
ences, Curriculum, etc.

Clement, J. A., on correlation of high
school and college standings, 331.

Clerical education, 583-93. Cf. Vo-
cational education, Commercial
education.

Clothing trades, 599-601.

Clubs, etc., cf. Extra-curriculum ac-
tivities.

Coeducation, 108-15. Cf. Sex,
Adolescence, Puberty, Individual
differences, Curriculums, Domestic
arts. Cf. also 87, 181, 190, 230, 245,
253-54.

College, general treatment of the re-
lation of secondary to higher edu-
cation, 303-36; secondary school-
pupils going to college, 108, 146-
51, 163-64; historical relation and
present status, 303-14; admission
requirements, 315-23; examina-
tion and accrediting systems, 324-
36. For special . subject require-
ments cf. subject titles, English,
Mathematics, etc.

College Entrance Examination
Board, 325-28, 336.

College, the French communal, 232-
46.

Colonial schools, cf. Latin grammar
school, Academy.

Columbus junior high school, 292.

Colvin, S. S., on pure science and
transfer values, 500.

Commercial arithmetic in junior
high school, 686-87. Cf . Commer-
cial education.

Commercial arts as related to design,
etc., 636.

Commercial cumculums, 688. Cf.
Commercial education.

Commercial education, general treat-
ment, 583-93. Cf . Vocational edu-
cation.

Commercial English, 444, 590-91.

Commercial French, 453-54, 590-92.

Commercial German, 453-54, 590-
92.

Commercial occupations, analysis
of, 587-90.

Commercial schools, cf . Special-type
schools.

Commercial Spanish, 453-44, 590-
92.

Commission on the Reorganization
of Secondary Education, cf . reports
of its various committees.

Committee on Articulation of High
School and College, recommenda-
tions of, 322-23.

728

INDEX

Committee on College Entrance Re-
quirements, on units and the dis-
tribution of requirements, 319; on
requirements in mathematics,
484-85.

Committee on Economy of Time in
Education, recommendations, 287.

Committee (of Fifteen) on Geome-
try Syllabus, 492-93.

Committee on High-School Course
in English, 42^23.

Committee on Minimum Essentials,
on elementary-school studies, 283.

Committee on Modern Languages,
456.

Committee (of Ten) on Secondary
School Studies, on graduates going
to college, 147; on six-grade secon-
dary school, 291 ; on mathematics,
484-85; on natural sciences, 508-
09; on social sciences, 535-37; on
curriculums, 664-66.

Committee on Social Studies, on the
aims, character, and program of
social studies, 544-46; on com-
munity civics, 562-63; on Prob-
lems of American Democracy,
565-S7.

Committee on Status of Instruction
in Hygiene in American Educa-
tional Institutions, on provisions
for physical education, 641.

Committee (of Seven) on Study of
History in Schools, on status of
history instruction in 1898, 537-
39; on civil government, 542.

Committee (of Five) on Study of
History in Secondary Schools, rec-
ommendations, 539.

Community Civics, 542-43, 560-63,
686, 687. Cf. Civics, Social sci-
ences.

Community life, effect of changes on
secondary education, 356-60.

Compayre, G., American influence
on French education, 237.

Composite mathematics, 492, 686,
687.

Composite secondary schools, cf.
Comprehensive secondary schools.

Composition, 425-38. Cf. English.

Comprehensive secondary schools
versus special-type schools, 698-
704. '

Compulsory attendance, 131-32,
585, 596, 607, 612. Cf. Retarda-
tion, Elimination.

Concentration, 680-81.

Conceptual values, mathematics,
492-93; natural sciences, 521-22;
social sciences, 553-54.

Concomitant development, theory
of, 44-53.

Connecticut, Latin grammar schools
in, 168-69.

Constant elements in curriculum
organization, 674-76, 686, 687,
689-90.

Contingent values, 391-92.

Continuation education and con-
tinuation schools, 697-98, 707; in
France, 239; in Germany, 222-23.
Cf. Vocational education.

Continuity in education, 680-81.

Cooperative part-time education, cf.
Part-time education.

Correlation of high-school and col-
lege standing, 328-33.

Cosmopolitan high school, cf. com-
prehensive secondary school.

Cost, of junior high school, 297; of
retardation, 126-27; of vocational
education, 582-84.

Counts, G. S., on the distribution of
high-school graduates, 151.

Courtis, S. A., and the Courtis Stan-
dard Tests, on the reasoning abil-
ity of children, 47; individual dif-
ferences in arithmetical abilities,
75, 76, 79, 84; on sex differences,
110-12.

Courses of study, cf . Curriculums.

Crampton, C. W., on The influence o
growth and puberty, 21-23, 28, 67-
68; on sex hygiene and sex peda-
gogy, 650-51.

Criteria of subject values, general
treatment, 387-418.

Culture and cultural education, cf.
Leisure. Cf. also footnote, p. 171.

Curriculums, general treatment,
662-90; historical and compara-

INDEX

729

live considerations, 662-67; prin-
ciples determining curriculum or-
ganization and differentiation,
667-83; junior and senior high-
school curriculum organization,
683-90; curriculums of higher
schools in Prussia, 209-18; in
France, 235^41: in England, 249,
252-53; curriculum of Latin gram-
mar schools, 164-67; curriculums
of the academies, 178-82.

Dancing, as an aesthetic art, 621 ; in
physical education, 654-56. Cf.
^Esthetic arts, Physical education.

Davis, B. M., on agricultural educa-
tion, 606.

Davis, C. O., on adolescence and the
beginning of secondary education,
50, 58.

Dearborn, W. F., on the distribution
of high-school grades, 81-82; on
the correlation of high-school and
college grades, 330-31.

Death rate, 17-19, 642, 649.

Declamation. 179, 180, 186, 187, 413.

Deferred values, 682-83, 713.

De Garmo, C., on values of the nat-
ural sciences, 522.

Democracy, 342-44, 244-46, 368.
719-21.

Denmark, 205, 273.

Denominational schools, 361.

Departmental teaching, 279, 293-94.

Design and related arts, general
treatment, 633-37. Cf. yEsthetic
arts, Industrial arts, Domesticarts,
Commercial arts.

Development, physical, 3-32; psy-
chological, 34-71.

Dewey, J., on mental development,
43^15; on social changes, 353-54;
on language study, 425-28, 430,
432, 446; on aesthetic arts, 625.

Dexter, E. G., on the academy
movement, 175; on the high-school
movement, 194-95.

Diagnosis, cf. Educational diagnosis,
Diagnostic education, Diagnostic
function, Educational guidance,
Individual differences, Elimina-

tion, Expectancy of stay, Classifi-
cation of pupils.

Diagnostic education, 294, 382-83,
695, 699, 706, 717-19. Cf. Edu-
cational diagnosis, Diagnostic
function, Educational guidance,
Individual differences, Elimina-
tion, Expectancy of stay, Classifi-
cation of pupils.

Diagnostic function of secondary
education, 382-83, 669. Cf. Diag-
nostic education, Educational di-
agnosis, Educational guidance, In-
dividual differences, Elimination,
Expectancy of stay, Classification
of pupils.

Differences, cf . Individual differences.

Differentiating function, 378-79,
668-69. Cf . Individual differences.

Differentiation, social, 347-49; edu-
cational, 280, 294-95, 677, 662-
90.

Differentiated curriculums, 662-90.

Direct values, general treatment,
388-94; of various studies, cf. sub-
ject titles.

Disciplinary values, cf. Transfer of
improved efficiency.

Discipline, 53, 71, 719-21.

Dissociation as the basis of transfer,
397 ff.

Distribution of college graduates,
316.

Distribution of high-school gradu-
ates, 150-53.

Distribution of individual differ-
ences, 75-86. Cf. Individual dif
ferences.

Distribution of pupils in school, 118-
55. Cf. Individual differences, Re-
tardation, Elimination.

District school system, 168-70, 272.

Domestic arts, domestic science,
domestic economy, etc., cf. Domes-
tic education.

Domestic curriculums, 688—89.

Domestic (arts) education, general
treatment, 611-15. Cf. Voca-
tional education, Practical arts
education. As related to aesthetic
arts, 636-37.

730

INDEX

Douglass, A. A., on the junior high

school, 293.
Drawing, cf . Design and related arts,

^Esthetic arts. Cf. also 320, 321,

413, 414.

Dummer Academy, 172.
Dutton, S. T., and Snedden, D., on

Vocational education, 705-06.
Dynes, J. J., on retardation and

elimination, 140.

Early promise and elimination, 137-
38.

ftcole practique, 232.

Ecole primaire, 232 ff.; Ecole pri-
maire sup£rieure, 239.

Economics, 563-67, 320, 413. Cf.
Social sciences.

Economic conditions and elimina-
tion, 135.

Economic factors affecting individ-
ual differences, 100-06.

Economic-vocational aim of secon-
dary education, 368-71.

Economic- vocational values, cf . sub-
ject titles.

Economy in Education, 126-27, 286-
87.

Economy of Tune in Education, rec-
ommendations of committee, 287.

Educational diagnosis, 100-08, 131-
55, 294, 330-33, 382-83, 669, 671,
672-74, 695, 717-19.

Educational guidance, 717-19. Cf.
Educational diagnosis, Expec-
tancy of stay, Classification of
pupils, Diagnostic education, Diag-
nostic function, Individual differ-
ences, Retardation, Elimination,
etc.

Electrical trades, 600-01.

Election and elective studies, 670-
71, 676-82.

Ekmentarschule, 209.

Elementary education, general treat-
ment in relation to secondary edu-
cation, junior high school, etc.,
261-98; distinctions between ele-
mentary and secondary education,
261-69; historical relation, 269-
72; foreign systems, 272-74, 208-

09, 221-22, 226-27, 232-33, 245,
255; defects in present relation,
274-83; reforms planned, 284-98.
Cf. also 49, 64.

Elementary science, cf. General sci-
ence.

Elimination, general treatment, 128-
45, 153-55, 281-82, 287-88, 294,
694-95.

Eliot, C. W., on the values of nat-
ural science study, 517.

Endowed schools of England, 247-
50.

Engineering trades, 600-01.

England, secondary education in,
general treatment, 246-58; Latin
grammar school, 162; academy
movement, 170; organization of
school system, 273.

English, general treatment of its
place in the program of studies,
420-45. Cf. also 321-23, 413-16,
665, 675-76, 686-87; distribu-
tion of grades in English, 81.

English Classical (High) school of
Boston, 185-87.

English course, 508, 536, 664-66.

Enrollment in secondary schools,
United States, 118-23; in Ger,
many, 220-22, 228; in France, 242;
in England, 252, 256; in certain
other countries, 205.

Environmental factors and individ-
ual differences, 95-105.

Errors in interpreting individual dif-
ferences, 87-88.

Ethics, taught in France, 544; in
America, 413.

Eton College, 248.

Etymology, 413, 464-65.

Europe, secondary education in
203-58; industrial education in>
593-94. Cf. Foreign countries,
Germany, France, England, etc.

Evening schools, 697-98.

Evidences of Christianity, 180, 187,
188.

Examinations for college entrance,
324-36.

Expectancy of stay in the secondary
school, 141-45. Cf. also Educa-

INDEX

731

tional diagnosis, Educational gui-
dance, Classification of pupils,
Retardation, Elimination, Diag-
nostic education, etc.

Expense, cf. Cost.

Experimental investigation of trans-
fer, 407^09.

Extra-curriculum activities, 715-17.

Factory system, effects of, 361, 595.

Faculty psychology, 394, 459-60,
496, 514, 522, 554-55, 587.

Fallacies involved in determining
direct values, 389-94; Spencer's
fallacies, 512-17.

Fathers, occupations of, 102-03.

Fine arts, cf. ^Esthetic arts.

Flexibility of organization and ad-
ministration, 294, 677-80.

Food industries, 599-601.

Foreign-born children and children
of foreign-born parentage, 95-100.
Cf. Biological heredity, Social
heredity.

Foreign countries, secondary edu-
cation in, 203-58, 272-74, 666-
67.

Foreign languages, general treat-
ment of instruction in, 447-78. Cf.
also 51, 70, 321-23, 413-15, 438,
665, 686, 687. Cf. Latin, Greek,
German, French, Spanish.

Formal discipline, cf . Transfer of im-
proved efficiency.

Fortbttdungschule, 221-23. Cf. Ger-
many, education in.

Foster, W. L., on pubescence as a
basis for classification, 24-25, 67.

France, education in, general treat-
ment, 231-46. Cf. also 205, 206,
272-74, 422, 450-51, 512, 543-44.

Frankfort plan of Reformschule, 213-
15.

Franklin's Academy, 171-72, 178,
481.

Frauenschule, 216-18.

French, general treatment of foreign
language instruction, 447-77. Cf.
also 178, 179, 180, 188, 190, 209-
12, 214-15, 217-18, 236, 238, 241,
249, 520, 590.

Fresno, California, Junior College,

311.
Functions of secondary education,

375-83, 668-69.

General high school, cf. Comprehen-
sive secondary school.

General science, 320, 413, 525-29,
676, 686-87. Cf. Natural sciences.

Generalization, 379 ff. Cf. Dissocia-
tion, Transfer of improved effi-
ciency.

Geography, 165, 178, 179, 180, 186,
187, 188, 276, 283, 413, 676, 686-
87.

Geology, general treatment of nat-
ural science instruction, 506-29.
Cf. also 180, 320, 413.

Geometry, general treatment of
mathematical studies, 481-503. Cf .
also 165, 178, 179, 180, 187, 188,
320, 402, 403, 413, 414, 415, 686,
687.

German, general treatment of for-
eign language instruction, 447-77.
Cf. also 180, 209-12, 214-15, 217-
18, 238, 249, 320, 413, 414, 415,
416, 417, 520, 590.

Germany, education in, general
treatment, 206-31. Cf. also 171,
205, 272-74, 421-22, 450, 484, 511,
543-44.

Gilbert, J. A., on growth and school
standing, 14, 16; on development
of mental traits, 36.

Ginnasio, 273.

Girls, height and weight, 8-14; vital
capacity, 15; pubescence and
adolescence, 21 ff . ; development of
mental traits, 36-38; compared
with boys, 108-15; secondary edu-
cation of in academy, 181-82; sec-
ondary education of in Germany,
216-19; secondary education of in
France, 240-41; secondary educa-
tion of in England, 253-54. Cf.
Sex, Individual differences, Co-
education.

Government, cf. Social sciences,
Civics.

Government of pupils, 719-21.

732

INDEX

Grades, distribution of, 79, 81.

Gradual development, theory of,
54 ff.

Gradual transition, principle of, 293-
94.

Graduates, distribution of college,
316.

Graduates, distribution of high-
school, 14&-53.

Grammar, 413, 434. Cf. English.

Grammar school, cf. Latin grammar
school.

Grant-list and efficient schools of
England and Wales, 250-54.

Greece, aesthetic arts in ancient
Greece, 621-22; physical educa-
tion in ancient Greece, 640; edu-
cation in modern Greece, 205, 273.

Greek, general treatment of foreign
language, instruction, 447-77. Cf.
also 164-65, 178, 209, 212, 214,
236, 238, 249, 304, 314, 320, 413,
414.

Grip of hand, 76.

Growth, physical traits, 3-32; men-
tal traits, 34-71.

Guidance, cf. Educational guidance,
Educational diagnosis, Expectancy
of stay, Classification of pupils,
Diagnostic education, Diagnostic
function, Individual differences,
Retardation, Elimination.

Guizot Law, 237.

Gymnasium, 641. Cf. Physical edu-
cation.

Gymnasium, 209 ff. Cf. Germany,
education in.

Gymnastics, 652-58. Cf. Physical
Education.

Hadley, A. T., on distinction be-
tween elementary, secondary, and
higher education, 265.

Hall, G. S., on adolescence, 56-58.

Handwork, cf. Manual arts, Manual
training, Practical arts education,
etc.

Harrow, 248.

Hartwell, E. M., on death rate, 18.

Head, circumference of, 15-17.

Health, in relation to physical

growth, 17-19. Cf. Physical edu-
cation, Hygiene.

Heart disease, 649.

Hecker's Realschule, 171.

Height, growth in, 8-14; individual
differences in, 76, 78.

Henderson, E. N., on Rosenkrantz's
theory of mental stages, 41-43.

Heredity, cf. Biological heredity,
Social heredity, Individual dif-
ferences.

Heterogeneity, of population, 358-
59; of school groups, cf. Individual
differences.

High school, historical development,
184-200; relation to the elemen-
tary school, 261-98; relation to
higher institutions, 303-36. Cf.
Secondary education, Junior high
school, Senior high school, Com-
prehensive secondary school, Spe-
cial-type schools, Program of
Studies, Curriculums, Organiza-
tion, etc.

High-school course, pupils' estimate
of value, 107-08.

High-school graduates, distribution
of, 146-53.

High-school pupils, physical traits,
3-32; mental traits, 34-71 ; individ-
ual differences, 74-115; attitudes
toward school work, interests, etc.,
103-08; acceleration and retarda-
tion, 123-28; elimination, 128-45;
expectancy of stay in school, 142-
45; distribution and classification,
146-55, 671-74; going to college or
other higher institution, 146-53,
312-14.

Higher education in relation to sec-
ondary education, 303-36.

Hinsdale, B. A., on the values of the
study of history, 554-55.

Historical development of secondary
education, 161-200.

History, general treatment of social
science instruction, 534-69, espe-
cially 545-59. Cf. also 171, 179-
80, 186-87, 188-89, 209-12, 214-
15, 217-18, 236, 238, 241, 249, 253,
411, 413-15, 583-604, 676, 686-87.

INDEX

733

History of English literature as a
study, 413.

Hohere Schule, 208-31. Cf. Ger-
many, education in.

Hoheres Lehrerinnenseminar, 216-19.
Cf. Germany, education in.

Holland, E. O.. on the relation be-
tween secondary schools and nor-
mal schools, 309.

Holley, C. E., on home conditions
and persistence in school, 100-01,
135-37.

Home and family life, the effect of
changes in secondary education,
350-56, 578, 585, 595, 607, 613,
644.

Home conditions and elimination,
134-37.

Home economics, cf. Domestic edu-
cation.

Home making, etc., cf. Domestic
education.

Home study, cf. Supervised study .^

Hopkins, Edward, and the Latin
grammar schools, 163.

Household arts education, cf. Do-
mestic education.

Household economics, cf. Domestic
education.

Household science, cf . Domestic edu-
cation.

Huxley, T., on the values of natural
science instruction, 530.

Hygiene, 645-51. Cf. also, 413,
508, 519, 641, 686, 687. Cf. Natu-
ral sciences, Physical education,
Sex hygiene.

Illness, at adolescence, 19; prevent-
able through education, 642.

Immigration, bearing of, on second-
ary education, 95-100.

Income of the family as related to
persistence in school, 101-02.

Indirect values, 394-412. Cf. also
subject titles.

Individual differences, general treat-
ment of character, distribution,
and causes, 74-115; necessity for
earlier recognition, 285-86, 290,
665-66, 695; importance in the

junior high school, 294, 685-87; as
a social factor, 347-49; in relation
to the differentiating function of
secondary education, 378-79, 668-
69, 671-75, 676-82; in relation to
supervised study, 714.

Individualistic-avocational aim of
secondary education, general treat-
ment, 367, 371-74, 667-68; related
to literature, 640-42; related to
history, 552; related to music, 630-
31.

Industrial (arts) education, general
treatment, 593-605; cumculums,
688; as related to aesthetic arts,
626, 634-36; in Germany, 222-23.
Cf. Vocational education.

Industrial occupations, analysis of,
597-601.

Inspection, cf. Accrediting system.

Instincts, 48.

Instruction, organization of, 712-15.
Cf . Supervised study, Cumculums,
Program of studies, etc.

Integrating function of secondary
education, 296-97, 377-78, 439,
551, 668, 676. Cf. Integration,
Social Heredity, etc.

Integration, social, 95-100, 296-97,
347-49, 377-78, 439, 551, 668, 676.

Intermediate school, cf. Junior high
school.

Interests of pupils, 103-08, 113-15,
701-02. Cf . Individual differences,
Educational guidance, Education-
al diagnosis, Diagnostic function,
Diagnostic education, Curricu-
lums, Vocational education, etc.

Italian, 413. Cf. Foreign languages.

Italy, 205, 273.

James, W., on memory, 44; on in-
stincts, 48.

Japan, 205, 273.

Joliet (Illinois) Junior College, 310.

Jones, A. L., on examinations as a
test of fitness for college admission,
328-29.

Judd, C. H., on the problem of trans
fer, 395-97, 400, 408, 419.

Junior college, 310-12.

734

INDEX

Junior high school, general treatment,
284-98; curriculum organization,
684-87; place in the school system,
693-98; comprehensive versus
special-type organization, 684-85,
698-99; organization of instruc-
tion and supervised study, 712-15;
diagnosis and guidance, 718-19. Cf .
Elementary education in relation
to secondary education.

Kalamazoo High School case, 200.

Kandel, I., on the Einheitschide in
Germany, 224.

Kansas, teacher-training courses in
high schools, 308.

Karpinski, L. C., on the values of
mathematical study, 490, 493.

Keatings, M. W., on methods of his-
tory instruction, 556-58.

Keer, J., on the academy, in Scot-
land, 171.

Kerschensteiner, G., on German and
American education, 227, 229.

King, I., on gradual development,
60-62; on the interests and habits
of high-school pupils, 102-04.

Kingsley, C. D., on college entrance
requirements, 317-23; on the
Study of Nations, 569.

Kirkpatrick, E. A., on mental traits,
47.

Laboratory work, 507-08.

Land grants to academies, 175-78.

Language study, cf. English, For-
eign languages, Latin, Greek, Ger-
man, French, Spanish.

Latin, general treatment of foreign
language study, 447-77. Cf. also
164-65, 166, 167, 172, 178-80, 188,
189, 209-10, 212, 214-15, 217,
236-38, 241, 249, 253, 304, 306,
314, 320, 413-15, 416, 417.

Latin grammar school, general treat-
ment, 160-70. Cf. also, 269-70,
304-05, 420-21, 481, 506, 534, 662.

Latin-scientific course, 508, 536, 664,
665, 666.

Leicester Academy, 181.

Leisure, preparation for the worthy

use of, 371-74. Cf. Individuals
tic-avocational aim.

Liberal and vocational education,
705-06.

Liceo, 273.

Lincoln, E. A., on the correlation of
standing in high school, college-
entrance examinations, and in
early college, 331-32.

Linguistic education, cf. English,
Language study, Foreign lan-
guages.

Literature, general treatment, 420-
25, 438-45, 627-28. Cf. English,
^Esthetic arts. Cf. also, 51, 413,
414, 415, 424-25, 438-42.

Lodge, H. C., on the values of classi-
cal studies, 459-60.

Logic, 178, 179, 180, 186, 188, 189,
413.

Los Angeles Junior High School, 292.

Lungs, growth of, 15-16.

Lyc6e, 231 ff.

Lyzeum, 216-18.

MacDonald, A., on growth and
school progress, 13.

Machinist trades, 599-601.

Madchenschule, 208, 216-19. Cf.
Germany, education in.

Maine, state aid in, 199.

Major studies, for college admission,
321-23; for concentration, 680-81.

Mann, Horace, on history in early
schools, 535.

Manual arts in the junior high school,
686, 687.

Manual training, 413, 414, 573, 593-
94. Cf. Practical arts education,
Vocational education, Industrial
education.

Maryland, academies in, 174.

Massachusetts, Latin grammar
schools, 163-69; academies, 172-
74, 176-77; public high schools,
185-93; legal provisions for sec-
ondary education, 165-66, 188-
92.

Massachusetts Commission on In-
dustrial and Technical Education.
618.

INDEX

735

Mathematics, general treatment,
481-503. Cf. also, 75-76, 79, 80,
81-82, 111, 165, 172, 178-80, 186,
187, 188, 189, 209-12, 214, 215,
217, 218, 235, 236, 238, 249, 253,
283, 306, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323,
413, 414, 415, 416, 664, 665, 686,
687. Cf. Arithmetic, Algebra,
Geometry, Trigonometry, Calcu-
lus.

Maturity, cf. Adolescence, Puberty.

Mayo, M. J., on the mental capac-
ity of the negro pupil, 90-95.

Mechanical drawing, cf . Design and
related arts, Practical arts educa-
tion, Vocational education.

Mechanics, 413.

Median, 85.

Median deviation, 85.

Medical examination, 641. Cf. Phys-
ical education.

Memories, development with age,
38-39; individual differences, 76.

Men teachers, 280.

Meningitis, 649.

Mensuration, 179, 180, 186, 413.

Mental development, general treat-
ment, 34-71, 262-64.

Mental discipline, cf. Transfer of
improved efficiency.

Mental traits, general treatment, 34-
71.

Merchandising, cf. Commercial edu-
cation.

Merchant Taylors', 248.

Metal-working trades, 599-601.

Meteorology, 180, 413. Cf. Natural
sciences.

Methods of teaching, as affected by
theories of development, 52-53,
70-71; supervised study, 713-15;
deferred and immediate values,
713; in the junior high school, 278-
81, 294-95. Cf. subject titles.

Military training, 640, 641, 652, 657-
58.

Milliken, R. A., on the propaedeutic
values of mathematics, 490.

Mills, J. E., on the values of chem-
istry, 515.

Mineralogy, 180, 413.

Minneapolis Survey, 604.

Minnesota, state aid in, 200.

Minor studies, 322-23.

Mittelschule, 221-22.

Mobility of labor and population, ef-
fect on education, 359-60.

Mode, 85.

Modern languages, general treat-
ment of foreign language instruc-
tion, 447-77. Cf. also German,
French, Spanish, Italian.

Modern Language Association, on
the scope of modern language in-
struction, 456.

Modern language course, 508, 536,
664-66.

Monroe, P., on the bearing of ado-
lescence on secondary education,
65, 69-70; on German schools,
220, 222; on French schools, 237.

Moral-social education, as affected
by changes in the home, in com-
munity life, and in the vocation.
351-53, 363-64; as effected bj
changes in the Church, 360-61.

Moravian academies, 172.

Mortality statistics, 17-18, 642-14,
649.

Mother tongue, cf. English.

Motor skill, 51.

Music, general treatment, 628-33.
Cf. .Esthetic arts. Cf. also 180,
209, 210, 217, 236, 241, 249, 253,
283, 320, 413, 414, 415, 686, 687,

Nationality, individual differences
due to, 95-100; relation to elimina-
tion, 136.

Natural history, 180, 413.

Natural Philosophy, cf. Physics.

Natural sciences, general treatment,
506-29. Cf. Physics, Chemistry,
Biology, General science, Physi-
ology, Astronomy, Geology, Mete-
orology, Physical geography, Bot-
any, Zoo-logy. Cf. also 321-23, 413,
414, 515, 645-51, 665, 686, 687.

Natural theology, 187, 188, 413.

Nazareth Hall, 172.

Navigation, 179, 180, 186, 413.

736

INDEX

Negroes, mental capacity of, 90-95.

Nervous diseases, 644.

Nervous system, growth of, 26.

Netherlands, 205.

New England, Latin grammar school
in, 169; academies in, 175; workers
in various occupations, 580.

New England College Entrance Cer-
tificating Board, 334^35, 338.

New Hampshire, Latin grammar
schools in, 168, 169.

New York State, academies in, 174,
177, 180, 193; high-school move-
ment, 193.

New York State Board of Regents,
325.

Normal age, 123-;24.

Normal distribution, 77-84.

Normal schools, 308-10.

Norsworthy, N., on memory span,
38.

North Carolina, academies in, 174.

North Central Association of Col-
leges and Secondary schools, 335.

North Central States, teacher train-
ing in high schools, 308.

Norway, 205.

Oberlehrer, 223-24.

Oberlyzeum, 216-19.

Oberrealschule, 310 ff. Cf. Germany,
education in.

Occupational choices of high-school
pupils, 103-06.

Occupations, analysis of, general
divisions, 578-80; clerical, 587-
88; commercial, 588-90; indus-
trial, 597-602, 604; agricultural,
608-10; of women, 613-14. Cf.
Practical arts education, Voca-
tional education, Industrial Edu-
cation, Clerical education, Com-
mercial education, Agricultural
education, Domestic education.

Occupation of pupils' fathers, 101-
03, 136.

Occupations of high-school gradu-
ates, 152-53.

Ohio, high-school movement in, 163-
64.

Organic diseases, 644.

Organization, of curriculums, 662-

690; of the school system, 693-98;

of the secondary school, 698-704;

of vocational secondary education.

704-12; of instruction, 712-15;

of extra-curriculum education,

715-17; of educational guidance,

717-19; social organization of the

school, 719-21.
Organs and parts of the body, growth

of, 14-17.
Ossification, 17.
Over-age pupils, cf. Retardation,

Promotion.

Painting, cf. ^Esthetic arts, Design
and related arts.

Part-time education, 596, 602, 708-
11. Cf. Vocational education.

Paterson, N.J., age-grade distribu-
tion, 5; distribution of pupils ac-
cording to stages of puberty, 27-32.

Pearse, A. S., on the values of bio-
logical study, 516-17.

Pearson, K., on scientific method,
524-25.

Pedagogical age, 6-7, 276-77.

Pennsylvania, academies in, 309.

Pennsylvania State Normal Schools,
309.

Perkins, A. S., report of experiment
on the results of Latin study, 474-
75.

Pettee Committee, on the division of
the system of education, 292.

Phillips Academies at Andover and
Exeter, 172, 178-79.

Physical development, general treat-
ment, 3-32. Cf. also 262-64, 669-
71. Cf. Adolescence, Puberty,
Physical education.

Physical education, general treat-
ment, 640-58.

Physical geography, 413, 414, 415.
Cf. Natural sciences.

Physical training, general treatment,
651-58. Cf. Physical education.

Physical traits, 3-32.

Physics, general treatment of natural
science instruction, 506-29. Cf.
also, 178, 179, 180, 186, 188, 189,

INDEX

272, 320, 413, 414, 415. Cf. Natu-
ral sciences.

Physiological age, 7, 19-30, 284-85.
Cf. Adolescence, Puberty, Physi-
cal development.

Physiology, general treatment of
physical education, 645-51; gen-
eral treatment of natural science
instruction, 506-29. Cf. also 180,
320, 413, 414, 415, 686, 687.

Plato, on Greek education, 621-22.

Play, 654-58.

Plymouth Colony, Latin grammar
school, 168.

Political economy, cf. Economics,
Social sciences.

Postpubescence, cf. Puberty, Ado-
lescence.

Porter, W. T., on growth and school
progress, 12-14.

Portugal, 205.

Practical arts education, general
treatment, 572-615. Cf. Voca-
tional education, Industrial edu-
cation, Commercial education,
Agricultural education, Domestic
education.

Preferential studies, 681-82.

Preparation for college, cf. College.

Preparatory curriculums, 689.

Preparatory schools, cf. Academy,
Private schools, Propaedeutic func-
tion, College.

Prepubescence, cf. Puberty, Adoles-
cence.

Preventive medicine, 643.

Prevocational education, 288-89,
706-07. Cf . Vocational education.

Primary education, cf. Elementary
education, £cole primaire.

Printing trades, 600-01.

Private schools, 119-20, 196-97. Cf.
Academy.

Probejahr, 223.

Problems of American Democracy,
as a study, 546, 565-67.

Problem-solving methods, 402-03.

Professeur, 243-44.

Professions entered by college and
university graduates, 315-16.

Program of studies (not curriculums),

criteria of subject values, general
treatment, 386-412; analysis of
program, 412-18. Cf. Subject
titles, Curriculums.

Progymnasium, 209 ff . Cf . Germany,
education in.

Promotion, 294, 696-97.

Propaedeutic function of secondary
education, 379-80, 669. Cf. Col-
lege.

Prussia, education in, 206-31.

Pryor, on anatomical age, 17.

Psychological age, 7, 34-71, 262-64,
284-85, 696-97.

Pubescence, cf. Puberty, Adoles-
cence.

Puberty, general treatment, 19-32,
34-71, 262-64.

Public schools of England, 247 S.

Pupils, physical traits, 3-32; mental
traits, 34-71; individual differ-
ences, 74-115; distribution and
classification, 118-55, 671-74.

Pyle, W. H., on association and sub-
stitution tests, 37.

Questionnaire methods, 63-64.

Racial heredity, 89-95. Cf. Biologi-
cal heredity, Social heredity, In-
dividual differences.

Rapeer, L. W., on physical educa-
tion, 642, 648, 649, 659.

Reaction time, 36.

Realgymnasium, 210 ff . Cf . Germany,
education in.

Realprogymnasium, 210 ff. Cf. Ger-
many, education in.

Realschule, 210 ff . Cf . Germany, edu-
cation in.

Reasoning, theories involving the de-
velopment of capacity for, 39-71;
individual differences in arith-
metical reasoning among high-
school pupils, 76. Cf . also Transfer
of improved efficiency.

Recitation, reforms in supervised
study, 713-14.

Reformschule, Reformgymnasium,
213-15. Cf. Germany, education

738

INDEX

Religion, effects of changes in the
Church, 360-61 ; religion as a study
in German higher schools, 209,
210, 211, 212, 214, 215, 217, 218.
Cf. Denominational schools, Sec-
tarian schools.

Reorganization of elementary and
secondary education, 274-98, 693-
721. Cf. Junior high school, Social
principles. For reorganization of
means of instruction, cf. subject
titles.

Repeaters, cf. Retardation.

Required studies, 675-76, 681-82.
Cf. Constants, Individual differ-
ences, Election and elective stud-
ies, Preferential studies, Vari-
ables, Curriculums, and subject
titles.

Retardation, general treatment, 123-
27. Cf. also, 281-82, 287-88, 294,
696-97. Cf. Acceleration, Elimi-
nation, Promotion, Physical de-
velopment, Mental development.

Rhetoric, 178, 179, 180, 186, 188,
189, 413, 414, 415, 416. Cf. Eng-
lish.

Rhode Island, Latin grammar
schools in, 168.

Rigid curriculums, 677-80.

Robinson, J. H., on historical in-
struction, 568.

Robison, C. H., on the transfer val-
ues of agricultural study, 608.

Roman Catholic Church, schools
maintained by, 184.

Rosenkrantz, J. K. F., on stages of
mental development, 41-42.

Rotch, on anatomical age, 17.

Ruediger, W. C., on transfer, 404.

Rugby, 248.

Rugg, H. O., transfer values of math-
ematical study, 497-98.

Rural communities, secondary educa-
tion in, 582, 607, 703; statistics of
secondary schools and attendance,
120-21; distribution of population
in rural and urban communities,
357. Cf. Agricultural education,
Urbanization, Smith-Hughes Law.

Russia, 205.

St. Paul's (London), 248.

Salaries of teachers, in Germany,
223; in France, 244.

Salesmanship, cf. Commercial edu-
cation.

Salmon, L., on the values of histori-
cal study, 554.

Saltatory development, 54 ff. Cf.
Adolescence, Puberty, Physical de-
velopment, Mental development,
Gradual development.

Santa Barbara (California) Junior
College, 311.

Schools, comprehensive versus spe-
cial-type, 698-704.

Schultze, A., on the values of mathe-
matical study, 487-88, 490, 494.

Science, cf. Natural sciences, Social
sciences.

Scientific method, 524-25.

Scotland, academies in, 170-71; or-
ganization of education, 273.

Secondary education, historical de-
velopment in America, 161-200;
secondary education in foreign
countries, 203-58; in relation to
elementary education, 261-98; in
relation to higher education, 303-
36; social principles determining
secondary education, 340-64; aims
and functions, 367-83; program
of studies, 387-658; curriculum
organization, 662-90; phases of
external organization, 693-711;
phases of internal organization,
712-21.

Secondary-school pupils, physical
traits, 3-32; mental traits, 34-71;
individual differences, 74-115;
numbers, classification, and dis-
tribution, 118-55, 671-74.

Sectarian schools, 184, 361.

Seeley, J. R., on history instruction,
557.

Segregation, cf. Coeducation.

Selection, 89.

Selective function of secondary edu-
cation, 380-82, 669.

Self-government, 719-21.

Senior high school, curriculum or-
ganization, 687-90; general econ'

INDEX

739

omy, 694-98. Cf. Junior high
school, Curriculums, Comprehen-
sive secondary school.

Sense discrimination, 36.

Serial or periodic development, the-
ory of, 39 ff.

Sewing, cf. Domestic education.

Sex, individual differences due to,
108-15. Cf. Adolescence, Coedu-
cation, Physical traits, Mental
traits, Individual differences, Girls,
Puberty.

Sex hygiene and sex pedagogy, 650-
51. Cf. Adolescence, Puberty,
Coeducation.

Sex instincts, development of, 59, 61.
Cf. Adolescence, Puberty, Indi-
vidual differences, Coeducation.

Shallies, G. W., on the distribution
of high-school graduates, 152.

Shopwork, cf. Industrial education,
Vocational education, Practical
arts education.

Short-unit courses, 686, 687. Cf.
Diagnostic education, Diagnostic
function.

Shrewsbury, 248.

Six-grade secondary school, 291-98,
684-90, 693-98. Cf. Junior high
school, Senior high school, Curric-
ulums, Organization.

Size of family and elimination, 135-36.

Size of secondary school, 120-21,
582, 677, 683, 699-700.

Skewed distribution, 83-84.

Skull, growth of, 16.

Sleight, W. G., on transfer values,
400, 406-07.

Small, W. H., on the Latin grammar
school, 169.

Smedley, F. W., on physical traits,
13, 15-16.

Smith, A. T., on foreign school sys-
tems, 274.

Smith, D. E., on the values of mathe-
matical study, 488, 494.

Smith, F. O., on the correlation of
pupils' standing in high school and
college, 331-32.

Smith, H. B., on industrial educa-
tion, 581-82.

Smith-Hughes Law for Vocational
Education, 574-75, 594, 606.

Snedden, D., on vocational secon-
dary education, 705-06.

Social-civic aim of secondary edu-
cation, general treatment, 367-69,
667-68; in relation to literature,
438-39, 441-42; in relation to for-
eign language study, 455-57; in
relation to social science study,
544-69; as related to physical train-
ing and athletics, 651-58; as re-
lated to military training, 658; as
related to curriculum organization,
667-68, 675-76; as related to ex-
tra-curriculum education, 715-17;
as related to the social organiza-
tion of the school, 719-21.

Social evolution and educational
adjustment, 344-64.

Social factors involved in the reor-
ganization of grades seven to nine,
264-65.

Social heredity, 95-100.

Social ideals and social organization
determining secondary education,
341-44.

Social institutions, changes in, affect-
ing secondary education, 349-64,
577-78, 584-85, 594-96, 606-08,
612-13.

Social integration and social differ-
entiation, 95-100, 340-41, S47--49.
Cf. Social principles, Integration,
Integrating function, Social hered-
ity.

Social organization of secondary
education, cf. Social ideals, Social
evolution and educational adjust-
ment, Social principles, Organiza-
tion of social education, Curricu-
lums, Extra-curriculum educa-
tion, etc.

Social principles determining sec-
ondary education, 340-64.

Social sciences, general treatment.
534-69. Cf. History, Civics. Com-
munity civics, Economics, Litera-
ture, Problems of American De-
mocracy.

Social solidarity, cf. Social integration.

740

INDEX

Sociology, 565-67.

Spain, 205.

Spanish, general treatment of for-
eign language instruction, 447-77.
Cf. also, 320, 413,414, 590-92. Cf.
also Foreign languages.

Specialization, 687-90, 698-704, 717-
19.

Special-type schools, 698-704.

Spelling, individual differences in, 76.

Spencer, H., on education for leisure,
371-72; on the values of natural
science study, 513-16.

Stages of mental development, 39 ff.

Standard deviation, 85.

Starch, D., experiments on the re-
sults of foreign language study,
476.

Starch, D., and Elliott, E. C., on va-
riability in grading, 327.

State aid, to academies, 176-78; to
secondary education, 199-200.

State systems of secondary educa-
tion, 197-200.

State universities and the secondary
school, 307.

Stenography, cf. Clerical education,
Commercial education. Cf. also,
180, 413.

Strayer, G. D., on retardation, 124;
on elimination, 128, 129, 130.

Studies, cf. Program of studies, sub-
ject titles.

Studienanstalten, 216 ff. Cf. Ger-
many, education in.

Study of Nations, 569.

Subject-matter, 51-52, 69-70. Cf.
also Instruction, Program of stud-
ies.

Subject values, criteria of, 387-418.

Subjects, cf . Program of studies, sub-
ject titles.

Suicide, 649.

Supervised study, 686-87, 713-15.

Surveying, 180, 186, 413.

Sweden, 205, 273.

Swimming, 641.

Switzerland, 205.

Teachers, numbers, per school, per
pupil, 120-21; in German higher

schools, 223-24; in French higher
schools, 243-44; American and for-
eign compared, 230-31; demand
and supply, 119; in elementary
and secondary schools, 280.

Teacher-training courses in the high
school, 308-10.

Technical high schools, 573, 593.

Terman, L. M., on physical traits, 11,
14, 16-17, 19; on sex variability,
113.

Textile trades, 599-601.

Thompson, F. V., on commercial oc-
cupations, 583.

Thompson, H. B., on sex differences,
110.

Thorndike, E. L., on the develop-
ment of mental traits, 45-46, 48-
49, 58-60; on racial traits, 92; on
sex differences, 110-11, 113, 114-
15; on elimination, 128, 129, 130;
on the standing of pupils on ad-
mission examinations and in col-
lege, 328; on the transfer of im-
proved efficiency, 395, 396, 398,
399, 403, 406, 408-09.

Thought, relation of language to,
423 ff., 462 ff.

Transfer of improved efficiency, gen-
eral treatment, 394-412; as related
to foreign language study, 459-62;
as related to mathematical study,
494-500; as related to natural sci-
ence study, 516-17, 522-25; as re
lated to social science study, 554-
56; as related to practical and
manual arts, 576-77; as related to
stenography, 586-87; as related to
agricultural education, 608.

Trigonometry, general treatment of
mathematical instruction, 481-
503. Cf. also, 179, 180, 186, 320,
413, 414.

Tuberculosis, 649.

Typewriting, cf. Clerical education,
Commercial education.

Typhoid fever, 649.

Under-age pupils, cf. Acceleration.
Units of high-school study, 316 ff.
University, cf. College.

INDEX

741

Urban communities, population, 357;

secondary schools in, 120-21.
Urbanization, effects on secondary

education, 357-58.

Values of subjects, general treatment
of subject values and their criteria,
387^18. Cf. subject titles, Eng-
lish, Foreign languages, Mathe-
matics, Natural sciences, Social
sciences, Practical arts education,
Vocational education, ^Esthetic
arts, Physical education, etc.

Van Denburg, J. K., on age distribu-
tion of first-year high-school pupils,
77; on the home conditions of high-
school pupils, 101-04; on vocation-
al choices of high-school pupils,
104-06; on pupils' attitudes toward
high-school education, 107; analy-
sis of factors of elimination, 133-
39, 141-44.

Variability, cf . Individual differences.

Variables in the curriculums, 674-
75, 676-80, 686, 687, 689-90.

Vermont, Latin grammar schools,
168.

Vernacular, cf. English.

Virginia, academies, 174; Latin gram-
mar schools, 162.

Vital capacity, 15-16.

Vocabulary, 425 ff.

Vocational choices of high-school
pupils, 104-06. Cf. Vocational
education, Vocational guidance,
Diagnostic education, Diagnostic
function.

Vocational education, general treat-
ment, 572-615, 704-11; as affected
by changes in the home and family
life, 353-55; as affected by changes
in industrial life, 361-64; as af-
fected by changes in community

life, 356-60; in Germany, 222. Cf.
also, 121, 288-89. Cf. Clerical
education, Commercial education,
Agricultural education, Indus-
trial education, Domestic educa-
tion, Pre vocational education, Eco-
nomic-vocational aim of second-
ary education, Vocational guid-
ance.

Vocational guidance, general treat-
ment of educational guidance, 717-
19. Cf. Educational guidance,
Diagnostic education, Diagnostic
function, Educational Diagnosis,
Elimination, Individual differ-
ences, Distribution and Classifica-
tion of pupils, Vocational choices,
Expectancy of stay, etc.

Volksschule, 208 ff. Cf. Germany,
education in.

Vorschide, 208 ff . Cf. Germany, edu-
cation in.

Weight, growth of children in, 8-14.
West, G. M., on growth and school

progress, 12-13.
Westminster, 248.
Winchester, 248.
Wisconsin, state aid in, 200.
Woodworking trades, 591-601.
Worcester (Massachusetts), children

of foreign-born parentage, 99-100.

Yocum, A. D., on mathematical

study, 487.
Young, J. W. A., on mathematical

study, 487, 488, 489, 491, 494, 496.

Zoology, general treatment of natu-
ral sciences, 506-29. Cf. also, 180,
188, 320, 413, 414, Cf. Natural
Sciences, Biology.

Zymotic diseases, 644.

NEW ISSUES IN THE

Riverside Literature Series

For the Grades

ALDKICH'S Marjorie Daw and Other Stories. No. 265.
ANTIN'S At School in the Promised Land. No. 245.
BURROUGHS'S The Wit of a Duck, and Other Papers. No. 259.

IRVING'S Tales from the Alhambra. Adapted by Josephine Brower.
No. 260.

Kipling Stories and Poems Every Child should Know. Part I,
No. 257. Part II, No. 258.

MUIR'S The Boyhood of a Naturalist. No. 247.

SHARP'S Ways of the Woods. No. 266.

WIGGIN'S Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm. No. 264.

Selections for Reading and Memorizing. Grades I- VIII. Seven
volumes, Nos. FF-MM inclusive.

For High Schools

BOSWELL'S The Life of Johnson. Abridged. No. 248.
CLARKE'S A Treasury of War Poetry. No. 262.

Liberty, Peace, and Justice. (Documents and Addresses 1776-
1918.) No. 261.

KELLER'S The Story of My Life. No. 253.
PALMER'S Self-Cultivation in English. No. 249.
PEABODY'S The Piper. No. 263.
RICHARDS'S High Tide. An Anthology. No. 256.

For Colleges

HOWELLS'S A Modern Instance. No. 252.

LOCKWOOD'S English Sonnets. No. 244.

RITTENHOUSE'S The Little Book of American Poets. No. 255.

RITTENHOUSE'S The Little Book of Modern Verse. No. 254.

SHEPARD'S Shakespeare Questions. No. 246.

SHERIDAN'S The School for Scandal. No. 250.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and Piers the Ploughman,
No. 251.

Houghton Miff tin Company

1940

PROBLEMS OF CONDUCT

BY
DURANT DRAKE

Professor of Philosophy, Vassar College

An Introductory Survey of Ethics

THE Boston Transcript says : "It is the great
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BY
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THIS book, like Professor Drake's Problems
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way to stable belief and energetic action.

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1726

HOW TO STUDY
AND

TEACHING HOW TO STUDY

By
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Professor ef Elementary Education, Teachers College

Columbia University

Every teacher, student, and parent should read this
book, — perhaps the most fundamentally important
educational book that has recently appeared.

Some of the questions which are fully and help-
fully answered in the book:

Why young people have not been learning to study
effectively.

The changes necessary to be made in the schools in
order that they may learn to study properly.

How the large amount of waste in home study caa
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A first-hand presentation of the meaning and work of the vocational guidanc
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CHOOSING A VOCATION By Frank Parsons

This book is an indispensable manual for every vocational counselor.

THE PROBLEM OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

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ueeds of youth.

PREVOCATIONAL EDUCATION

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VOCATIONS FOR GIRLS

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Information as to conditions of work and the opportunities in the more common
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THE HOME SCHOOL By Ada Wilson Trowbridg*

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PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF INDUSTRIAL

EDUCATION By William H. Dooley

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Charles A. Prosser, and an equipment of thought stimulating questions, together
with reading references and courses of study.

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION : Its Problems, Methods,

and Dangers By Albert H. Leake

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1908

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AMERICANIZATION AND CITIZENSHIP

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ENGLISH FOR FOREIGNERS. Book I

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ENGLISH FOR FOREIGNERS. Book H
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1933

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HOW CHILDREN LEARN.
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THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE COMMON BRANCHES.
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DISCIPLINE AS A SCHOOL PROBLEM.
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MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING.
By W. S. MONROB, University of Illinois.

1946*

EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS.
By W. S. MONROE, J. C. DsVoss, Kansas State Normal School; and F. j'.
KELLY, University of Kansas.

THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION.
By H. W. NUTT, University of Kansas.

STATISTICAL METHODS APPLIED TO EDUCATION.
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CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL.

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A HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL OFFICERS.

By N. D. SHOWALTER, Washington State Normal School.

THE HYGIENE OF THE SCHOOL CHILD.

By L. M. TERMAN.

THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE.
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Test Material for the Measurement of Intelligence. Record Booklets for the
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TEACHING LITERATURE IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES AND HIGH
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THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL.
By THOS. H. BRIGGS, Columbia University.

THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL.
By CHARLES SWAIN THOMAS.

PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION.
By ALEXANDER INGLIS, Harvard University.

PROBLEMS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION.
By DAVID SNEDDEN, Columbia University.

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1926 b

PRACTICAL NEW TEXTBOOKS

PRACTICAL BUSINESS ENGLISH.

By OSCAR C. GALLAGHER, formerly Head Master, West Roxbury High
School, Boston, and LEONARD B. MOULTON, Department of English,
High School of Commerce, Boston.

Practical Business English tells how and what to write to conduct
and promote business. Written primarily for pupils in the third and
fourth years of high school, this very practical text is a firm founda-
tion on which to base future business success. Principles are pre-
sented clearly and definitely. Every exercise is so planned and
analyzed that the pupil has a certain piece of work before him, with
specific directions as to how to do it. Much of the material in the
book is new and has not been treated in other books of similar char-
acter. It is the direct result of long classroom experience.

SPANISH TAUGHT IN SPANISH.

By CHARLES F. MCHALE, Instructor in Spanish in the National City
Bank, New York.

The strong appeal of Spanish Taught in Spanish is that the pupil
learns his lessons in Spanish right from the start. This method
stimulates interest and thus enables the pupil to think in Spanish
and to absorb the language with amazing rapidity. When this text
has been thoroughly mastered, the pupil will find himself able to em-
ploy the Spanish language for every practical purpose.

THE SCIENCE OF EVERYDAY LIFE.

By EDGAR F. VAN BUSKIRK, formerly in charge of General Science,
DeWitt Clinton High School, New York City, and EDITH L. SMITH,
Instructor, Geography Department, Boston Normal School
This is the first science book to be built on the topic-project-problem
plan, which has proved so successful in practice. Yet it has a
definite unifying principle, so generally lacking in books in General
Science. The basis is Everyday Needs. All the material is grouped
under five units, which are subdivided into projects.

(I) The Air and ffcnv We Use It.— (2) Water and Hcno We Use
It.— (3) Foods and How We Use Them. — (4) Protection — - Homes
and Clothing.— (5) The Work of the World.

The projects are arranged to give scope to the pupil's initiative.
The approach to each subject is made from the experiment to the
textbook. The course bears a close relation to the familiar conditions
of the pupil's life. The applicability of what he is studying is COP
stantly impressed upon his mind.

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

1935

PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION
In Four Books

By EDWIN L. MILLER

Principal of the Northwestern High School
Detroit, Michigan

This series marks a radical departure in methods of teaching
English. It is flexible, direct, and informal. In line with the
modern tendency in education, it emphasizes the practical
aspect, the why of learning to write and to speak good English.
Original work is encouraged in both teacher and pupils, and
especial attention is given to training in oral composition.

While designed for independent use in the four years of the
high school, the books will admirably supplement a formal
treatise on rhetoric and composition.

Book I Teaches the freshman how to write a correct,
coherent, readable letter, how to speak fluent,
graceful, precise English, how to gather material
and criticise his own work, and begins the study of
description.

Book II Reviews description, teaches the sophomore the
fundamentals of narration through news writing,
and takes up advertisement writing.

Book III Begins advanced composition in the junior year,
deals with various methods of narration and
description, and takes up exposition in detail.

Book IV Reviews exposition and develops the subject of
argumentation — oration and debating — in the
senior year.

The author has devoted several years to the perfection ol
the plan embodied in this series. Not only has he succeeded
in rounding out a live course of English instruction from th<
teacher's point of view, but he has presented each chapter ij
such a way that the pupil realizes i's importance to him.

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1949

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